{"id":99205,"date":"2021-04-01T20:04:04","date_gmt":"2021-04-01T14:34:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blog.forumias.com\/?page_id=99205"},"modified":"2021-04-05T15:30:31","modified_gmt":"2021-04-05T10:00:31","slug":"ecology-and-ecosystem","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/ecology-and-ecosystem\/","title":{"rendered":"Ecology, and Ecosystem"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Ecology, and Ecosystem<\/strong>\u00a0 [pdf<\/a>]<\/p>\n

1.1 ENVIRONMENT\u00a0<\/b><\/h2>\n

Environment means anything that surrounds us. It consists of both living (biotic) and non-living\u00a0 (abiotic) things. Interactions among the biotic and abiotic components shape the habitat and ecosystem\u00a0 of an organism.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

The environment includes the physical (air, water), chemical (carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle) and\u00a0 biological (biomolecules, organisms) interactions that affect an organism.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Components of Environment<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Abiotic\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nBiotic<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Water\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nGreen plants<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Soil\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nNon-green plants<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Atmospheric gases\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nMan<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Fire\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nAnimals<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Energy\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nParasites<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Temperature\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nDecomposers<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

1.2 ECOLOGY\u00a0<\/b><\/h2>\n

Ecology <\/b>is the study of relationships between living organisms, including humans and their physical\u00a0 environment. There are five main levels of organization of ecology.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0Ecological Organization\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Population <\/b>refers to a group of individuals usually of the same species, occupying a defined area during\u00a0 a specific time.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Community <\/b>refers to all populations of different species that live in the same area and interact with one\u00a0 another. A community is composed of all of the biotic factors of a site. Communities in most instances\u00a0 are named after the dominant plant form and can be divided into two types:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \n
  1. Major Community<\/b>– These are large-sized and relatively independent. They depend only on the\u00a0 sun\u2019s energy from outside. E.g., Tropical Evergreen Forests.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n
  2. Minor Community<\/b>– These are dependent on the neighboring communities. E.g., A mat of\u00a0 lichen on a cow dung pad.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    Ecosystem <\/b>is the structural and functional unit of a biosphere. It consists of a community of living\u00a0 organisms in conjunction with their environment\u2019s non-living components, both interacting and\u00a0 exchanging materials between them.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    This Red Book is a part of a Supplementary Study Material for ForumIAS Academy Comprehensive Guidance Program ( CGP) 2022\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \"\"<\/p>\n\n\n\n
    Some terms to remember:\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

    1. <\/span>Autotrophs <\/b>-Primary producers like\u00a0 green plants, microscopic algae.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    2. <\/span>Heterotrophs\/Phagotrophs<\/b>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    Consumers who are incapable of\u00a0 producing their own food, e.g., humans. 3. <\/span>Saprotrophs\/Osmotrophs<\/b>– They are\u00a0 decomposers like bacteria, fungi,\u00a0 earthworms.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

     <\/p>\n\n\n\n
    Ecotone <\/b>is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. E.g., the mangrove forests\u00a0 are an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystems while grasslands represent an ecotone\u00a0 between forest and desert. Other ecotones are estuary and riverbank.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    Important <\/span>characteristics of ecotone <\/b>are:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    a. <\/span>It is a <\/span>zone of tension <\/b>with conditions intermediate to the ecosystems bordering it. <\/span>b. <\/span>It is <\/span>linear <\/b>as there is a progressive increase in species composition of incoming community\u00a0 and simultaneous decrease in species of outgoing adjoining community.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    c. <\/span>There may be <\/span>organisms in an ecotone entirely different <\/b>from that of adjoining\u00a0 communities.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    d. <\/span>Ecotones may have an \u2018<\/span>edge effect<\/b>\u2019 wherein the number of species and population density of\u00a0 some species in this zone is much greater than either community.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

     <\/p>\n\n\n\n
    Niche <\/b>refers to the unique functional role or place of a species in an ecosystem. A niche is unique for\u00a0 a species and no two species in a habitat can have the same niche. Niche is important for the\u00a0 conservation of organisms. If we need to conserve a species in its native habitat, we need to know\u00a0 about the niche requirements of the species and ensure that all requirements of its niche are fulfilled.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    Biome <\/b>is the terrestrial part of the biosphere. They are characterized by climate, vegetation, animal life\u00a0 and general soil type.\u00a0 <\/span>\"\"<\/p>\n

    Biome distribution based on Temperature and Precipitation:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
    Sl. No\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nBiome\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nDistribution\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nImportant characteristics<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    1\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nTundra\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nNorthern and Southernmost <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>regions of the world adjoining <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>the ice-bound poles.<\/span><\/td>\n\u2022 <\/span>There are no trees due to <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>permafrost. The lowest forms of <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>vegetation like mosses, lichens are <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>sparsely found on bare rocks.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022 <\/span>Reptiles and amphibians are <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>almost absent.\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

     <\/p>\n

    This Red Book is a part of a Supplementary Study Material for ForumIAS Academy Comprehensive Guidance Program ( CGP) 2022\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    <\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n\u2022 <\/span>Most of the animals found have a <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>long life. They are protected by <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>thick cuticle and epidermal hair or <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>fur.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    2\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nTaiga\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nNorthern Europe, Asia and\u00a0 North America.<\/span><\/td>\n\u2022 <\/span>They are also known as boreal\u00a0 forests. Their productivity is lower\u00a0 than those of any other forest\u00a0 ecosystem.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022 <\/span>Soils of boreal forests are\u00a0 characterized by thin podzols.\u00a0 Podzols have low pH (acidic) due\u00a0 to excessive leaching.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    3\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nTemperate <\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    Deciduous Forest<\/span><\/td>\n

    		Central and Southern Europe, <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Eastern North America, <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Western China, Japan, New <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Zealand etc.<\/span><\/td>\n\u2022 <\/span>Soils of temperate forest are <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>podzolic and fairly deep.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022 <\/span>The flora includes oak, beech and <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>maple.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    4\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nTropical Rainforest\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nThey are found in the\u00a0 equatorial region.<\/span><\/td>\n\u2022 <\/span>Multiple storey of broad-leafed,\u00a0 tall, closely set evergreen trees\u00a0 with crowns forming a continuous\u00a0 canopy are found.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022 <\/span>The soil of rainforest is nutrient poor as most of the nutrients are\u00a0 washed away by heavy rains.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022 <\/span>Coexistence of a large number of\u00a0 species.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022 <\/span>Presence of numerous epiphytes. <\/span>\u2022 <\/span>Flora includes mahogany, ebony\u00a0 etc.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    5\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nSavannah\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nTropical region: It is most <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>extensive in Africa.<\/span><\/td>\n\u2022 <\/span>Tall grass and short trees.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u2022 <\/span>Trees are deciduous and have <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>broad trunks for water storage.<\/span> \u2022 <\/span>Also known as \u2018Big Game Country\u2019 <\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    as thousands of animals are <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>hunted for sports.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

    6\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nSteppe\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nTemperate conditions with\u00a0 low rainfall.<\/span><\/td>\n\u2022 <\/span>They are practically treeless. <\/span>\u2022 <\/span>Grasses are short and nutritious.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    7\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\nDesert\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nContinental interiors with <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>very low and sporadic rainfall.<\/span><\/td>\n\u2022 <\/span>Vegetation is predominantly <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>xerophytic or drought resistant.<\/span> \u2022 <\/span>Plants have long roots, few or no <\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    leaves, and the foliage is either <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>waxy, leathery, hairy or needle shaped to reduce the loss of water <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>through transpiration. E.g., cacti.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

     <\/p>\n\n\n\n
    Aquatic ecosystems <\/b>are not called biomes; however, they are divided into distinct life zones. Based\u00a0 on the salinity, aquatic ecosystems are classified into the following types:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    a. <\/span>Freshwater ecosystems <\/b>which have salt content less than 5 ppt. There are two types of\u00a0 freshwater ecosystems- Static or still water (Lentic) ecosystem like ponds, lakes, bogs,\u00a0 swamps and Running water (Lotic) ecosystem like springs, streams, rivers.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    b. <\/span>Marine ecosystems <\/b>that have salt content of 35 ppt or more.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    c. <\/span>Brackish water ecosystems <\/b>with salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt like mangroves,\u00a0 estuaries, salt marshes.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    Biosphere<\/strong> is a part of the earth where life can exist. It comprises of the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and lithosphere (land).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
    \"\"<\/td>\nPointers for prelims:<\/strong><\/p>\n

    1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Biosphere is absent at extremes of North and South poles, the highest mountains and deepest oceans <\/strong>since existing in hostile conditions there; do not support life.<\/p>\n

    2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Occasionally, spores of fungi do exist at great heights beyond 8000 meters, but they are metabolically inactive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    1.3 FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM<\/strong><\/h2>\n

    1.3.1 Ecological Succession<\/strong><\/h3>\n

    \u00a0<\/em>Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. The time scale can range from decades to even millions of years. Plants and animal species in an area are replaced or changed into another over a period of time. One community replaces another until a stable and mature climax community develops.<\/p>\n

    The stages leading to the climax community are called seres or successional stages.<\/strong> Succession is characterized by increased productivity, a gradual increase in food webs\u2019 complexity and increased diversity of organisms with increased niche development.<\/p>\n

    Succession occurs faster in regions existing in the middle of the large continent because seeds of plants belonging to the different seres would reach here much faster.<\/p>\n

    Stages in succession are<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Primary Succession<\/strong>: It takes place over an area where no community has previously existed. Few hardy pioneer species like lichens, mosses and microbes first colonialize the new site.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      The pioneers, over a few generations, alter the habitat conditions by their growth and development. These new conditions may be conducive to establishing additional organisms that may subsequently arrive at the site.<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Secondary Succession<\/strong>: It is the sequential development of biotic communities following the complete or partial destruction of the existing community. A mature or intermediate community may be destroyed by natural events like floods or human interventions like deforestation.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        \"\"<\/p>\n

        This abandoned land is first invaded by hardy grasses species that can survive in bare, sunbaked soil. Tall grasses and herbaceous plants may soon join these grasses. Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals. And over the years, a forest community develops.<\/p>\n

        \"\"<\/p>\n

        The difference between primary and secondary succession<\/strong> is that secondary succession is relatively faster than primary succession as it starts on a well-developed site already formed at the site. Also, secondary succession starts on a well-developed soil already formed at the site.<\/p>\n

        Types of succession are<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. Autogenic Succession<\/strong>: When living inhabitants of the community itself bring about succession.<\/li>\n
        2. Allogenic Succession<\/strong>: When outside forces bring about succession.<\/li>\n
        3. Autotrophic Succession<\/strong>: Succession in which green plants are much more significant in quantity.<\/li>\n
        4. Heterotrophic Succession<\/strong>: Succession in which heterotrophs are more significant in quantity.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          1.3.2 Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem<\/strong><\/h3>\n

          \"\"<\/p>\n

          Energy flow is unidirectional<\/strong> and decreases from the first trophic level to upwards. This is due to loss in energy in the form of heat at each trophic level.<\/p>\n

          Trophic level interaction deals with how members of an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
          \"\"<\/td>\nBasic Concepts<\/strong><\/p>\n

          1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Food Chain<\/strong>: A sequence of organisms that feed on one another form a food chain. It can be a grazing food chain (beginning from green plants at the base) or a detritus food chain (beginning from dead organic matter). Food chains are not found within the population of a species (for e.g., a lion won\u2019t eat a lion).<\/p>\n

          2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Food Web<\/strong>: Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web. A food web denotes the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

           <\/p>\n\n\n\n
          A food web consists of many food chains<\/strong>. A food chain only follows just one path as animals find food. E.g., a hawk eats a snake, which has eaten a frog, which has eaten a grasshopper, which in turn has eaten grass.
          \nHowever, a food web consists of many food chains<\/strong>. A food web shows many different paths through which plants and animals are connected. For e.g., a hawk might also eat a mouse, a squirrel or some other animal. The snake may eat a beetle or a caterpillar. And the process continues for all the other animals in the food chain.\"\"<\/p>\n\n\n\n
          Picture Credits: www.cadavies.com\/food-chains-and-food-webs.html<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
          \n

          Food Chain v\/s Food Web<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          Terrestrial Food Chain<\/strong>: Grass\u00aeGrasshopper\u00aeMouse\u00aeSnake\u00aeHawk.<\/p>\n

          Aquatic Food Chain<\/strong>: Phytoplankton (diatoms, cyanobacteria) \u00aeCrustaceans\u00aeHerrings<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Biotic Interactions<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Sl. No<\/strong><\/td>\nType<\/strong><\/td>\nSpecies 1<\/strong><\/td>\nSpecies 2<\/strong><\/td>\nExample<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          1<\/strong><\/td>\nMutualism<\/td>\n+<\/td>\n+<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Sea Anemone gets attached to the cell of hermit crab<\/p>\n

          \u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Coral reefs<\/p>\n

          \u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Pollination<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

          2<\/strong><\/td>\nCommensalism<\/td>\n+<\/td>\n0<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Suckerfish attaches to shark<\/p>\n

          \u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Cow dung and dung beetles.<\/p>\n

          \u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Trees and epiphytic plants<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

          3<\/strong><\/td>\nAmensalism<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n0<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 A large tree shades a small plant<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          4<\/strong><\/td>\nCompetition<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Two species compete for the same food<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          5<\/strong><\/td>\nPredation<\/td>\n+<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Predators like lion, tiger<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          6<\/strong><\/td>\nParasitism<\/td>\n+<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n\u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Parasites getting nourishment from the host<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
          \u2018+\u2019 means benefitted<\/p>\n

          \u2018- \u2018means harmed<\/p>\n

          \u20180\u2019 means neither benefitted nor harmed<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          \u00a0<\/strong>Ecological Pyramids<\/strong>: They are pyramidical representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological position (producer to final consumer). They are classified into three categories:<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Pyramid of numbers<\/strong>: This shows the total number of individual organisms at each level in an ecosystem\u2019s food chain.<\/li>\n
          2. Pyramid of numbers-upright<\/strong>: In this pyramid, the number of individuals decreases as one moves from lower to higher trophic level. Grassland and pond ecosystem shows this type of pyramid.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            \"\"<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. Pyramid of numbers-inverted<\/strong>: In this, the number of individuals is increased from lower to higher trophic level. E.g., tree ecosystem.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              \"\"<\/p>\n

                \n
              1. Pyramid of biomass<\/strong>: It is determined by collecting all organisms at each trophic level and measuring their dry weight.\n
                  \n
                1. Pyramid of biomass-upright<\/strong>: For the majority of ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass shows a large base of primary producers and a smaller trophic level perched on top.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                  \"\"<\/p>\n

                    \n
                  1. Pyramid of biomass-inverted<\/strong>: In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted form. This is because producers are tiny phytoplankton.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                    \"\"<\/p>\n

                      \n
                    1. Pyramid of Energy<\/strong>: An energy pyramid is a model that shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next along a food chain. It is always upright with a large energy base at the bottom.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                      \"\"<\/p>\n

                      Basic Concepts:1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Bioaccumulation<\/strong>: It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is eliminated.2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Biomagnification<\/strong>: It refers to the pollutant\u2019s tendency to concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the next. For biomagnification to occur, pollutants must be long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active. For e.g., the concentration of DDT moves up the food chain, from one trophic level to another.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
                      Issues with Ecological Pyramid<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

                      1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a01.\u00a0\u00a0 Saprophytes are not given a place in ecological pyramids.<\/p>\n

                      2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a02.\u00a0\u00a0 It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.<\/p>\n

                      3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a03.\u00a0\u00a0 It does not accommodate a food web.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                      1.3.3 Bio-geo-chemical cycle<\/strong><\/h3>\n

                      Bio-geo-chemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through the biotic and abiotic compartments of the earth. They are of the following types:<\/p>\n

                        \n
                      1. Nutrient Cycling<\/strong>: It is a concept that describes how nutrients move from the physical environment to the living organisms and subsequently back to the physical environment.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                        \"\"<\/p>\n

                          \n
                        1. Gaseous Cycles<\/strong>: Some of the most important gaseous cycles are water, carbon and nitrogen.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                            \n
                          1. Water Cycle<\/strong>: It involves a continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system, which is driven by solar energy.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                            \"\"<\/p>\n

                              \n
                            1. Carbon Cycle<\/strong>: It involves a continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms. It is usually a short-term cycle. Respiration, decay and volcanic actions are some factors that add CO2 <\/sub>to the Carbon Cycle.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                              \"\"<\/p>\n

                                \n
                              1. Nitrogen Cycle<\/strong>: Nitrogen is converted into many chemical forms as it circulates from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere.<\/li>\n
                              2. Nitrogen fixation<\/strong>: They are accomplished in three different ways: by microorganisms like bacteria and blue-green algae, by man using industrial process like fertilizer factories and to a limited extent by atmospheric phenomenon like thunder and lighting.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
                                Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions. These are free living nitrifying bacteria (e.g., aerobic azotobacter and anaerobic clostridium) and symbiotic nitrifying bacteria living in association with leguminous plants and symbiotic bacteria living in non-leguminous root nodule plants (e.g., rhizobium) as well as blue green algae (e.g., anabaena, spirulina)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                                 <\/p>\n

                                  \n
                                1. Nitrification<\/strong>: Ammonium ions are oxidized to nitrites or nitrates by two specialized bacteria; Nitrosomonas bacteria to promote ammonia transformation into nitrite, which is then further transformed into nitrate by the bacteria Nitrobacter.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                                    \n
                                  • Denitrification<\/strong>: Special denitrifying bacteria pseudomonas convert nitrites\/nitrates to elemental nitrogen.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                                    \"\"<\/p>\n

                                      \n
                                    1. Sedimentary Cycles<\/strong>: Phosphorus and sulphur circulate by means of sedimentary cycle.<\/li>\n
                                    2. Phosphorus Cycle<\/strong>: The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth\u2019s crust. It occurs in large amounts as a mineral in phosphate rocks and enters the cycle from erosion, weathering and mining activities.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                      \"\"<\/p>\n

                                        \n
                                      1. Sulphur Cycle<\/strong>: Sulphur is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and inorganic deposits (pyrite rocks and Sulphur rocks).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                        It is released by weathering activities. It also enters the atmosphere from sources like volcanic eruptions, fossil fuel combustion, ocean surface and decomposition.<\/p>\n

                                        While the Sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary, hydrogen sulphide and Sulphur dioxide add a gaseous component to it. This hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidized into Sulphur dioxide which dissolves in rainwater and falls as acid rain.<\/p>\n

                                        \"\"<\/p>\n

                                        1.4 TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS<\/strong><\/h2>\n

                                        1.4.1 Terrestrial Ecosystem<\/strong><\/h3>\n

                                        Terrestrial ecosystems, namely tundra forest, boreal forest, temperate deciduous forest, tropical rain forest, savannah, steppe and desert have been discussed earlier in this booklet.<\/p>\n

                                        Important terrestrial ecosystems required from prelims point of view will be discussed in this chapter.<\/p>\n

                                          \n
                                        1. Indian Forest Types (based on Champion and Seth classification of forest)<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                          \"\"<\/p>\n

                                          Picture Credits: Wildlife Institute of India<\/p>\n

                                            \n
                                          1. Grassland Ecosystem<\/strong>: These are found in regions where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year. Rainfall is not enough to support a forest, but more than a true desert. Steppe formations are found in western Rajasthan while dry savannah grasslands are found in the central and eastern parts of Rajasthan. Fire is a natural part of the grassland ecosystem which helps control trees, woody shrubs and invasive species and maintain its health and vigor.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                            Heavy grazing in grasslands leads to a reduction of the mulch cover of the soil. Microclimate becomes dry and is readily invaded by xerophytes. Due to the absence of humus cover, the mineral soil surface is heavily trampled. It reduces the infiltration of water into the soil and accelerates run-off, resulting in soil erosion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
                                            Banni Grassland<\/strong> of Gujarat is the largest natural grassland in the Indian subcontinent. Maldhari tribes dominate this area. A huge freshwater lake, Chhari-Dhand is a prominent feature of the Banni grassland.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                                            3. Desert Ecosystem<\/strong>: Animals are physiologically and behaviorally adapted to desert conditions: they are fast runners, nocturnal in habit, have long legs to keep the body away from the hot ground and conserve water by excreting concentrated urine.<\/p>\n

                                            Thar desert is an example of Indian desert. It is home to the Great Indian Bustard, Flamingoes and Asiatic Wild Ass<\/strong>. Asiatic Wild Ass, also known as ghudkhur<\/strong> in local Gujrati language, is a sub-species of the onager native of South Asia. The animal has no predators in that area, but its existence is threatened due to the destruction of habitats. It is currently listed as Near Threatened by IUCN.<\/p>\n

                                            Cold Desert of India is found in Leh, Ladakh and Kargil of Kashmir and Spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh and some parts of Uttarakhand and Sikkim. The soil of this region is sandy to sandy loam, while the pH type is neutral to slightly alkaline. Tibetan Wild Ass (Kiang<\/strong>) and Snow Leopard<\/strong> are important fauna found here.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
                                            Pointers for prelims<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

                                            1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Forest-plus 2.0<\/strong>, a 5-year program focusing on improving the status of forests in three terrains in Bihar, Kerala and Telangana, has been launched by USAID and MoEF&CC.<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                            2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Kerala has adopted Miyawaki style afforestation<\/strong> technique used to create urban forests. The Miyawaki method, also called the Potted Seedling Method, is an afforestation technique that uses native species to create dense, multilayered forests.<\/p>\n

                                            3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 New York Declaration on Forests (NYDF)<\/strong> is a voluntary and non-binding international declaration to take action to halt global deforestation.<\/p>\n

                                            4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Bonn Challenge<\/strong> was launched in 2011 by the government of Germany and IUCN. It envisages a global goal to bring 150 million hectares of degraded land and deforested landscapes into restoration by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030.<\/p>\n

                                            5.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Red Sanders<\/strong> is an endemic tree of South India. It is found in Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest of Palakonda and Seshachalam hill ranges of Andhra Pradesh and is also found in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. IUCN has classified it under endangered category.<\/p>\n

                                            6.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Shola forests<\/strong> are stunted tropical montane forests found in Nilgiris, Annamalai and Palani hills.<\/p>\n

                                            7.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Nilambur teak<\/strong>, grown in Kerala\u2019s Nilambur region, is the first forest produce to get GI tag in India. It exhibits high resistance to fungal decay and has antioxidant properties.<\/p>\n

                                            8.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Kelp forests<\/strong> are large brown algae seaweeds. They grow in \u201cunderwater forests\u201d in shallow oceans and nutrient-rich waters. Generally speaking, kelps live farther from the tropics than coral reefs. However, a few species have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters.<\/p>\n

                                            a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They are considered as keystone species.<\/p>\n

                                            b.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They help reduce coastal erosion and acts as a breakwater during large storms.<\/p>\n

                                            c.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 They are an important source of potash and iodine. Many kelps produce algin, a complex carbohydrate useful in industries such as tire manufacturing, ice-cream industry.<\/p>\n

                                            Indian State of Forest Report, 2019 (ISFR)<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                            ISFR report is a biennial publication of Forest Survey of India (FSI).<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                            1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Forest Cover<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                            a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Forest Cover (Area wise): M.P.>Arunachal Pradesh>Chhattisgarh>Odisha<\/p>\n

                                            b.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Forest Cover (Percent wise): Mizoram>Arunachal Pradesh>Meghalaya<\/p>\n

                                            2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The total forest and tree cover<\/strong> of the country is 24.56% of the country\u2019s geographical area, which is an increase of 0.65% over the previous assessment.<\/p>\n

                                            a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The total forest cover of the country is 21.67% and the total tree cover is 2.89%.<\/p>\n

                                            b.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The percentage of Very Dense Forests has increased over the assessment of 2017.<\/p>\n

                                            c.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The top five states and UT to have shown an increase in forest cover include Karnataka>Andhra Pradesh>Kerala>J&K>Himachal Pradesh<\/p>\n

                                            3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 There has been a decline in the forest cover in the North Eastern Region<\/strong> to the extent of 0.45%. Except for Assam and Tripura<\/strong>, all the states in the region have shown a decrease in forest cover.<\/p>\n

                                            4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 There has been a decrease of 741 sq km of forest cover within the Recorded Forest Area\/Green Wash (RFA\/GW) in the tribal districts.<\/p>\n

                                            5.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Increase in the tree cover<\/p>\n

                                            a. Maharashtra<\/strong> has the highest increase in tree cover.<\/p>\n

                                            6.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Mangrove cover<\/strong> in the country has increased by 54 sq km as compared to the previous assessment.<\/p>\n

                                            7.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Total Carbon Stock<\/strong> of the country has increased by 42.6% compared to the last assessment.<\/p>\n

                                            8.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Gujarat<\/strong> has the highest number of wetlands within the Recorded Forest Area (RFA).<\/p>\n

                                            9.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The analysis revealed that 21.40% of the country\u2019s forest cover is extremely fire prone.<\/p>\n

                                            10.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Special Features in ISFR 2019<\/strong><\/p>\n

                                            a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Includes the \u201cextent of trees outside forest (TOF)\u201d<\/p>\n

                                            b.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Assesses \u201cplant biodiversity in forests\u201d<\/p>\n

                                            c.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Provides for \u201crefined forest type map of India\u201d<\/p>\n

                                            d.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Maps \u201cfire prone forest areas\u201d<\/p>\n

                                            e.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Includes \u201cwetlands in forest areas\u201d<\/p>\n

                                            f.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Provides information on \u201cforest cover on slopes\u201d<\/p>\n

                                            g.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Lists \u201cmajor invasive species\u201d<\/p>\n

                                            h.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Lists \u201cimportant NTFP species\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                            The State of World\u2019s Forests (SOFO) 2020<\/strong> report<\/strong> is published by Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). The report assesses the progress to date in meeting global targets and goals related to forest biodiversity and examines the effectiveness of policies, actions and approaches, in terms of both conservation and sustainable development outcomes.<\/p>\n

                                             <\/p>\n

                                            The report focusses on combining conservation and sustainable use of forest biodiversity to create balanced solutions for both people and the planet.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                            Due to increasing population, pressure on forest resources have increased. This has led to higher frequency of forest fires<\/strong>. In general, forest fires play an important role in forest ecosystem. It helps recycle nutrients, remove invasive species and maintain habitat for some wildlife. In a way, forest fire helps in better regeneration of tree species.<\/p>\n

                                            However, as the cycle of fire has spun out of balance, forest fires have become a global concern. Forest fires have drastic impacts like:<\/p>\n

                                            1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 It releases billions of tonnes of CO2 <\/sub>into the atmosphere, thus aggravating global warming.<\/p>\n

                                            2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Habitats of several animals are destroyed.<\/p>\n

                                            3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Exposure to smoke from forest fires has led to various health issues in humans.<\/p>\n

                                            4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Forest fires also have a major impact on the micro-climate, thus affecting local weather and precipitation patterns.<\/p>\n

                                            Some of the reasons for forest fires<\/strong> include:<\/p>\n

                                            1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Natural causes include thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions.<\/p>\n

                                            2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Dry deciduous forest in India faces 5 to 6 months of dry period and are vulnerable to fires.<\/p>\n

                                            3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Man-made causes include slash and burn cultivation practiced in North-East India. Also, many a times, people visiting forests would leave behind inflammable materials like burning bidis, thus causing fire.<\/p>\n

                                            Australian Bushfire<\/strong> was the most devastating bushfire faced by Australia in at least 20 years. Although bushfires are common in Australia, the spread and intensity of 2020 bushfire was never seen before. Some of the reasons for the 2020 bushfire in Australia includes:<\/p>\n

                                            1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Prolonged drought in the region.<\/p>\n

                                            2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Rare stratospheric warming over Antarctica which contributed to the unusual heat and dryness in Australia.<\/p>\n

                                            3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Presence of positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) which are often associated with more severe fire season in South-east Australia.<\/p>\n

                                            4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Climate change has also increased the intensity and frequency of forest fires.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                            Deemed Forest<\/strong>: There are areas that are like forests but are neither recorded nor notified. Supreme Court has ordered that states classify them as deemed forests. Deemed forests are already a legal category of forests in some states.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                            Forest Advisory Committee (FAC)<\/strong> is a statutory body under the Forest Conservation Act 1980, which considers questions on diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes such as mining, townships and advises the government on the issue of granting forest clearances.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                                            1.4.2 Aquatic Ecosystem<\/strong><\/h3>\n

                                            Ecosystems consisting of water as the main habitat are known as aquatic ecosystems.<\/p>\n

                                              \n
                                            1. Aquatic organisms<\/strong> are classified based on their zone of occurrence and their ability to cross these zones.<\/li>\n
                                            2. Neuston<\/strong>: They live at the air-water interface. E.g., beetles, back-swimmers<\/li>\n
                                            3. Periphytons<\/strong>: These organisms remain attached to the stems and leaves of rooted plants.<\/li>\n
                                            4. Plankton<\/strong>: This group includes microscopic plants like algae and animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton). Their locomotory powers are primarily controlled by ocean currents.<\/li>\n
                                            5. Nekton<\/strong>: This group contains animals that are swimmers.<\/li>\n
                                            6. Benthos<\/strong>: These organisms are found at the bottom of the water mass.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                              Factors like sunlight and oxygen are the most important limiting factors of the aquatic ecosystem. Other factors include dissolved oxygen, transparency and temperature.<\/p>\n

                                                \n
                                              1. Wetland Ecosystem<\/strong>: Wetlands are areas of marsh or peatland with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or saline, including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 m. Wetlands are ecotones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                                Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country\u2019s area, of which 70% is under paddy cultivation. They are usually rich in nutrients and have an abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes. Wetlands support high densities and diverse fauna.<\/p>\n

                                                \"\"\"\"<\/p>\n

                                                  \n
                                                1. Lake Ecology<\/strong>: A body of standing water, generally large enough in area and depth, irrespective of its hydrology, ecology and other characteristics, is generally known as lake. Ageing of lake occurs as it accumulates mineral and organic matter and gradually gets filled up. Lakes are less productive than the estuary ecosystem but are more than oceans.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
                                                  The term \u201cOligotrophic<\/strong>\u201d is used to describe lakes with low primary productivity due to nutrient deficiency.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                                  Eutrophication<\/strong> is the process by which a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients from activities like agricultural run-off, disposal of industrial wastes and sewage discharge. This in turn induces excessive growth of algae.<\/p>\n

                                                  Dead Zones or hypoxia<\/strong>, which refers to reduced levels of oxygen in the water, results from eutrophication. When excessive algae due to eutrophication die, they are decomposed. The bacterial decomposition of their biomass consumes the oxygen in water, thereby creating a state of hypoxia.<\/p>\n

                                                  Eutrophication thus leads to decreased biodiversity, new species invasion, toxicity and migration of species. Gradually, the water body is reduced into a marsh.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                                                  Oligotrophic v\/s Eutrophic<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Parameters<\/strong><\/td>\nOligotrophic lake<\/td>\nEutrophic lake<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Aquatic plant and animal production<\/strong><\/td>\nLow<\/td>\nEliminated due to eutrophication<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Nutrient influx<\/strong><\/td>\nLow<\/td>\nHigh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Depth<\/strong><\/td>\nDeeper<\/td>\nShallow<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Water quality <\/strong><\/td>\nGood<\/td>\nPoor<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Oxygen in the bottom layer<\/strong><\/td>\nPresent<\/td>\nAbsent<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                                                  Lake v\/s Wetland<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Characteristic<\/strong><\/td>\nLake<\/td>\nWetland<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Origins<\/strong><\/td>\nTectonic forces<\/td>\nMostly fluvial<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Thermal Stratification<\/strong><\/td>\nYes<\/td>\nNo<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Vertical mixing<\/strong><\/td>\nThermally regulated<\/td>\nWind regulated<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Dominant producer<\/strong><\/td>\nPhytoplanktons<\/td>\nMacrophytes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Food Chain<\/strong><\/td>\nGrazing pathway<\/td>\nDetritus pathway<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Littoral:Pelagial ratio<\/strong><\/td>\nSmall<\/td>\nLarge<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                                  Productivity<\/strong><\/td>\nLow<\/td>\nHigh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                                  Majuli Island<\/strong> is the largest inhabited river island in the world and India\u2019s first island district. It is surrounded by the Brahmaputra river, KherkatiaSuti, LuitSuti and Subansiri Rivers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                                  Ameenpur Lake<\/strong> is the first waterbody in the country to be declared a Biodiversity Heritage Site. Under the Biological Diversity Act 2002, State Government in consultation with local bodies notifies Biodiversity Heritage Sites.<\/p>\n

                                                  Floating Treatment Wetland (FTW)<\/strong> was set up on Neknampur Lake<\/strong> in Hyderabad. It helps purify the lake by breaking down and consuming the organic matter in water with the help of microorganisms growing in the plant root system of FTW through microbial decomposition.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                                  Red Tide refers to Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB)<\/strong>, which are large concentrations of aquatic microorganisms such as protozoa and unicellular algae. Nutrient enrichment, warm waters, surface run-off and upwelling in seas are common causes for such blooms.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                                  Marine upwelling<\/strong> is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of nutrient-rich water from deep water towards the ocean surface, thus replacing the nutrient-depleted surface water.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
                                                    \n
                                                  1. Estuarine ecosystem<\/strong>: An estuary is a place where a river or stream opens into the sea. They are the most productive water bodies in the world.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                                    \"\"\"\"<\/p>\n

                                                      \n
                                                    1. Mangroves<\/strong>: Evergreen forests that grow in sheltered low-lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creek backwaters, marshes and lagoons of the tropical and subtropical regions. They are salt-tolerant or halophytes and are adapted to harsh ecological conditions. E.g., Sonneratia and Avicennia.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                                      Some characteristics of mangroves<\/strong> are:<\/p>\n

                                                        \n
                                                      1. Require high solar radiation.<\/li>\n
                                                      2. Produces pneumatophores (blind roots\/aerial roots) to overcome respiration problems in anaerobic soil conditions or adventitious roots (roots emerging from main trunk of the tree).<\/li>\n
                                                      3. Exhibit viviparity mode of reproduction (seeds germinate in the tree itself before falling to the ground).<\/li>\n
                                                      4. Some secrete excess salts through their leaves.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
                                                        Role of mangroves<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

                                                        1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Preventing coastal soil erosion.<\/p>\n

                                                        2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Acting as \u201cBio-Shields<\/strong>\u201d by protecting coastal lands from tsunamis and floods as they do not get uprooted during tsunami due to extensive roots.<\/p>\n

                                                        3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Nutrient recycling.<\/p>\n

                                                        4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Provides habitat to flora and fauna.<\/p>\n

                                                        5.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Supplies woods, fire and medicinal plants.<\/p>\n

                                                        6.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Provides employment to locals.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                                                        \"\"<\/p>\n

                                                        Mangrove Profile<\/p>\n\n\n\n
                                                        Pointers for prelims<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

                                                        1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Sundarbans<\/strong> is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is dominated by \u2018Sundri trees\u2019 and is the largest single block of halophytic mangrove forest in the world.<\/p>\n

                                                        a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 It is the only mangrove reserve in the world inhabited by tigers.<\/p>\n

                                                        2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Mangrove for the Future (MFF)<\/strong> is a regional initiative coordinated by UNDP and IUCN. It aims at promoting coastal ecosystem conservation in six tsunami hit countries including India.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

                                                         <\/p>\n

                                                          \n
                                                        1. Coral Reefs<\/strong>: Corals are marine invertebrates. They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. Corals are in a symbiotic relationship with \u2018zooxanthellae\u2019 microscopic algae which live on coral. Zooxanthellae assists the coral in nutrient production while the coral polyp in return provides zooxanthellae with a protected environment to live within. A coral reef is made of a thin layer of Calcium Carbonate.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                                          Corals are of two types<\/strong>– hard corals and soft corals. Only hard corals build reefs. Most of the world\u2019s corals are found in tropical shallow waters less than 50 meters deep. Scientists estimate that more than 25,000 described species from thirty-two of the world\u2019s thirty-three animal phyla live in reef habitats-four times the number of animal phyla found in tropical rain forests. Australia accounts for around 17% and Indonesia around 16% of the world\u2019s corals.<\/p>\n

                                                          They are highly productive and are also referred to as the \u2018Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans<\/strong>\u2019. They are classified into fringing reefs, patch reefs, barrier reefs and atolls.<\/p>\n

                                                          Coral reefs have been included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, thus offering it maximum protection. Also, they have been classified as CRZ-I A under the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notification, 2011.<\/p>\n

                                                          \"\"<\/p>\n

                                                          Coral Reef distribution in India<\/p>\n

                                                          \"\"<\/p>\n\n\n\n
                                                          Coral Bleaching<\/strong> occurs when coral polyps expel algae that lives inside their tissues. In such cases, corals lose their vibrant colours and turn white. Several reasons for coral bleaching are:<\/p>\n

                                                          a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Warm water temperature.<\/p>\n

                                                          b.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Solar irradiance.<\/p>\n

                                                          c.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Subaerial exposure.<\/p>\n

                                                          d.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Sedimentation.<\/p>\n

                                                          e.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Freshwater dilution.<\/p>\n

                                                          f.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Epizootics (Pathogen).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                                          Angria Bank<\/strong> is a shallow submerged atoll located 100 miles off the coast of Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. Coral reefs have been found in this area and the peculiarity of coral reefs present here is that it is in the middle of the ocean, unlike other corals which are either coastal or island corals.<\/p>\n

                                                          Angria Bank has the potential to become India\u2019s<\/strong> Great Barrier Reef<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
                                                          Pointers for prelims<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

                                                          1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Coral species in news<\/strong>:<\/p>\n

                                                          a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Fire Coral<\/strong> is critically endangered as per IUCN.<\/p>\n

                                                          b.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Orange Cup-Coral<\/strong> is an Invasive Alien Species (IAS) as per Zoological Survey of India (ZSI).<\/p>\n

                                                          2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The International Conference on Status and Protection of Coral Reefs (STAPCOR)<\/strong>-2018 took place at Bangaram Coral island of Lakshadweep. Theme of the conference was \u201cReef for Life\u201d.<\/p>\n

                                                          a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 STAPCOR takes place in every 10 years since its foundation in 1998.<\/p>\n

                                                          3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Tamil Nadu deployed artificial reefs<\/strong> in Vaan island in the Munnar region.<\/p>\n

                                                          4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 ZSI with the help from Gujarat\u2019s forest department, attempted for the first time a process to restore coral reefs using bio-rock or mineral accretion technology<\/strong>. Bio-rock technology is a method that applies safe, low voltage electric currents through seawater, causing dissolved minerals to crystallize on structures, growing into white limestone (CaCO3<\/sub>) similar to that which naturally makes up coral reefs and tropical white sand beaches.<\/p>\n

                                                          5.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 World\u2019s largest artificial coral reef<\/strong> is installed in Maldives.<\/p>\n

                                                          6.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Coral Bleaching Alert System (CBAS)<\/strong> has been developed by Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS).<\/p>\n

                                                          7.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Coral Reef Recovery Project<\/strong> is a joint venture between Wildlife trust of India and the Gujarat forest department.<\/p>\n

                                                          8.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Reef-Watch India<\/strong> is an NGO that has taken up two projects- Re(ef)Build and Re(ef)Grow.<\/p>\n

                                                          9.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Palau<\/strong> is the first country to ban \u2018Reef toxic\u2019 sun cream. Sun cream includes common ingredients like oxybenzone that disrupts coral reproduction, causes coral bleaching and damages coral DNA.<\/p>\n

                                                          10.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)<\/strong> is an informal partnership between nations and organizations that strives to preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems worldwide. The initiative was founded in 1994.<\/p>\n

                                                          a.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 India is a member but not a founding member.<\/p>\n

                                                          b.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Decisions are not binding.<\/p>\n

                                                          c.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 It is not a United Nations body.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                                                          Ecology, and Ecosystem\u00a0 [pdf] 1.1 ENVIRONMENT\u00a0 Environment means anything that surrounds us. It consists of both living (biotic) and non-living\u00a0 (abiotic) things. Interactions among the biotic and abiotic components shape the habitat and ecosystem\u00a0 of an organism.\u00a0 The environment includes the physical (air, water), chemical (carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle) and\u00a0 biological (biomolecules, organisms) interactions that… Continue reading Ecology, and Ecosystem<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":61,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-99205","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","entry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/99205","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/61"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=99205"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/99205\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=99205"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}