{"id":336255,"date":"2025-05-12T09:00:01","date_gmt":"2025-05-12T03:30:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/?p=336255"},"modified":"2025-05-11T19:09:00","modified_gmt":"2025-05-11T13:39:00","slug":"day-4-prelims-20-biotechnology","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/day-4-prelims-20-biotechnology\/","title":{"rendered":"Day 4 Prelims 20+: Biotechnology"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>In today\u2019s <em>Prelims 20+<\/em>, we focus on Biotechnology\u2014a dynamic and high-impact area within the Science and Technology section of the UPSC Civil Services Examination. With rapid advancements in genetic engineering, healthcare innovations, and agricultural biotechnology, this field remains a key driver of change in both national policy and global developments. Recent initiatives, regulatory updates, and emerging technologies often find mention in the exam, making it essential to stay updated on both conceptual clarity and current affairs linkages.<\/p>\n<table style=\"height: 60px;width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse;border-style: solid\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 30px\">\n<td style=\"width: 100%;text-align: center;height: 30px\"><strong>Table of Content<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 30px\">\n<td style=\"width: 100%;height: 30px\"><a href=\"#h1\">DNA<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h2\">Junk DNA<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h3\">EXTRACHROMOSOMAL DNA (ecDNA)<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h4\">RNA<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h5\">RNA Editing<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h6\">GENOME SEQUENCING<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h7\">Transcription and Translation\u00a0<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h8\">Recombinant DNA technology\u00a0<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h9\">Gene Editing<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h10\">Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and Cas9<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h11\">Gene Therapy<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h12\">Types of cells (from perspective of Gene editing)<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h13\">Embryonic stem cells<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h14\">Stem cell therapy<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h15\">Animal Cloning<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h16\">3- Parent baby<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h17\">Biofilms<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h18\">Bridge Recombinase Mechanism (BRM)<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h19\">CAR T-Cell Therapy<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h20\">Genome India Project<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h21\">Vaccination<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#h22\">Click here to download pdf of Biotechnology<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"h1\"><\/a>DNA<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Nucleic acid present in all organism: in the form of DNA and RNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The structure of DNA defines the basic genetic makeup of the body.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It carries and transmits the hereditary material\/genetic instruction from parents their generation.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Works for production of proteins.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><b>Structure of DNA<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind around one another to form a shape known as a double helix.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Attached to each sugar is one of four bases&#8211;adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The two strands are held together by bonds between the bases; adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds with guanine.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><b>Application of DNA<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Solving crimes\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Identifying human remains<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Testing for paternity\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Genetic testing.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Develops genetically transformed plants.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-336256 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/DNA.png?resize=505%2C295&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"505\" height=\"295\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/DNA.png?w=505&amp;ssl=1 505w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/DNA.png?resize=300%2C175&amp;ssl=1 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 505px) 100vw, 505px\" \/><\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"h2\"><\/a>Junk DNA<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Junk DNA, also known as non-functional DNA, refers to regions of DNA that do not code for proteins. Despite its name, it doesn\u2019t mean that these regions are useless or irrelevant. In fact, they perform important functions in genome regulation and other activities.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Definition<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Junk DNA is a DNA sequence that does not have a known biological function. Most organisms have some junk DNA in their genomes, which mostly consists of pseudogenes and fragments of transposons and viruses.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Function<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Although junk DNA does not directly form proteins, it plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression and other genomic activities.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Composition<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Junk DNA includes various types of non-coding DNA, such as introns, transposons, pseudogenes, regulatory elements, and repetitive sequences.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Controversy<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: There is ongoing debate among scientists about the functionality of junk DNA. Some believe that these regions are preserved by natural selection, while others argue that they are merely genetic leftovers.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h3\"><\/a>EXTRACHROMOSOMAL DNA (ecDNA)<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse;border-style: solid\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 100%\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\"><strong>Fundamentals of Cells and DNA<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (total 46 chromosomes).<\/li>\n<li>Chromosomes are thread-like structures located in the cell nucleus, made of DNA and proteins.<\/li>\n<li>DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule in the nucleus that carries genetic information in the form of genes, which provide instructions for building and maintaining an organism.<\/li>\n<li>Most DNA is found in chromosomes (nuclear DNA), but it can also exist as:<br \/>\n\u25aa Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)<br \/>\n\u25aa Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA)<br \/>\n\u25aa Cell-free DNA (cfDNA)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p data-start=\"37\" data-end=\"77\"><strong data-start=\"37\" data-end=\"75\">About extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA)<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"78\" data-end=\"181\">\n<li data-start=\"78\" data-end=\"181\">\n<p data-start=\"80\" data-end=\"181\">ecDNA are small circular DNA fragments that float freely in the nucleus, separate from chromosomes.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"183\" data-end=\"208\"><strong data-start=\"183\" data-end=\"206\">Formation of ecDNA:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"209\" data-end=\"641\">\n<li data-start=\"209\" data-end=\"641\">\n<p data-start=\"211\" data-end=\"641\">It forms when fragments of DNA break away from the main chromosomes due to processes such as chromosomal damage or replication errors. This can occur through mechanisms like:<br data-start=\"385\" data-end=\"388\" \/>\u25aa <em data-start=\"392\" data-end=\"408\">Chromothripsis<\/em>: A catastrophic event where chromosomes shatter and are reassembled incorrectly, leaving some fragments detached.<br data-start=\"522\" data-end=\"525\" \/>\u25aa <em data-start=\"529\" data-end=\"549\">Replication Errors<\/em>: Mistakes during DNA replication can result in fragments being excluded from chromosomes.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"643\" data-end=\"673\"><strong data-start=\"643\" data-end=\"671\">Role of ecDNA in Cancer:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"676\" data-end=\"787\">ecDNA is present in up to 90% of certain tumor types, such as brain tumors, liposarcomas, and breast cancers.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"790\" data-end=\"888\">It often carries multiple oncogenes, which drive tumor growth and contribute to drug resistance.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"891\" data-end=\"998\"><em data-start=\"891\" data-end=\"902\">Oncogenes<\/em> are mutated genes that can trigger cancer and are essential for activating tumor development.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong data-start=\"1000\" data-end=\"1032\">Violates Mendel\u2019s Third Law:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"1037\" data-end=\"1191\">Mendel\u2019s Law states that genes located on different chromosomes are inherited independently, meaning they are passed on randomly to the next generation.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1194\" data-end=\"1401\">However, ecDNA breaks this rule by keeping genes grouped together and passing them as a cluster during cell division. This helps cancer cells inherit beneficial genes more easily, speeding up tumor growth.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1404\" data-end=\"1501\">Unlike regular chromosomes, which are distributed randomly, ecDNA is passed along as a package.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h4\"><\/a>RNA<\/h2>\n<p><b>Structure of\u00a0 RNA\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">RNA consists of ribose nucleotides (nitrogenous bases appended to a ribose sugar) attached by phosphodiester bonds, forming strands of various lengths.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The nitrogenous bases in RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil, which replaces thymine in DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Utility of RNA<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Helps in synthesis of protein in our body.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Production of new cells in human body.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Translation of DNA into proteins.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Messenger between ribosome and the DNA.<\/span><br \/>\n<b><\/b><b><\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Types of RNA<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">tRNA (transfer RNA)- choose the\u00a0 right protein required by the body , which then helps the ribosomes.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">rRNA (ribosomal RNA)- synthesis and translation of m RNA into proteins.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">mRNA (messenger RNA)-transfers the genetic material to ribosomes and pass the instructions about the type proteins, necessary for blood cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Transcriptome:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The term &#8220;transcriptome&#8221; can also be used to describe the array of mRNA transcripts produced in a particular cell or tissue type. So a transcriptome is the full range of messenger RNA, or mRNA, molecules expressed by an organism.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h5\"><\/a>RNA Editing<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>RNA Editing:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> It is a process where the RNA made from DNA is changed before it is used to make proteins. This means the final RNA can be slightly different from the original DNA instructions.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Key Points<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">RNA editing happens after transcription (after RNA is copied from DNA).<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It changes some letters (nucleotides) in the RNA sequence.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">This can lead to different proteins being made from the same DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It increases the variety of proteins in the body.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h6\"><\/a>GENOME SEQUENCING<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Genome:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> A genome is the <\/span><b>complete set of genetic information<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> in an organism. It provides all of the information the organism requires to function.<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">All living things (bacteria, plants, and mammals) have a distinct genetic code, or genome, <\/span><b>made up of nucleotide bases (A, T, C, and G).<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">An organism&#8217;s own DNA fingerprint, or pattern, can be detected if one knows <\/span><b>the bases&#8217; sequence.<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Sequencing: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is the process of <\/span><b>establishing the order of bases<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">An organism&#8217;s <\/span><b>genome&#8217;s base order can be determined<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> in one step via a laboratory approach called whole genome sequencing.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h7\"><\/a>Transcription and Translation<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Protein synthesis:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> It is the process in which cells make proteins. It occurs in two stages: transcription and translation.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><b>Transcription<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is the <\/span><b>transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> in the <\/span><b>nucleus<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">After the mRNA is processed, it carries the instructions to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Thus, transcription is regarded as the first step of gene expression.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><b>Translation\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Translation occurs at the <\/span><b>ribosome<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, which consists of <\/span><b>rRNA and proteins.<\/b><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The instructions in mRNA are read, and tRNA brings the correct sequence of amino acids to the ribosome.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Then, rRNA helps bonds form between the amino acids, producing a <\/span><b>polypeptide chain<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional processing to form the finished protein.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h8\"><\/a>Recombinant DNA technology<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a technology that <\/span><b>uses enzymes to cut paste together DNA sequence of interest<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The <\/span><b>recombinant DNA sequence<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> can be placed into <\/span><b>vehicle<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> called <\/span><b>vectors<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> that ferry the DNA into a suitable host cell where it can be copied or expressed.<br \/>\n<img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-336257 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/RNA.png?resize=459%2C217&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"459\" height=\"217\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/RNA.png?w=459&amp;ssl=1 459w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/RNA.png?resize=300%2C142&amp;ssl=1 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 459px) 100vw, 459px\" \/><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><b>Tools involved in Recombinant DNA technology\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Restriction Enzymes:\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These are of two kinds; exo-nucleases and endo-nucleases.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Exo-nucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA whereas endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Restriction endonucleases are used in genetic engineering to form &#8216;recombinant&#8217; molecules of DNA, which are composed of DNA from different so urces\/genomes.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Separating DNA molecules:\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The most common separation technique used is gel electrophoresis.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">This technique takes advantage of the negative charge on DNA molecules by using an electrical field to provide the force necessary to separate DNA molecules based on size.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The separated DNA fragments can be visualised only after staining the DNA with a compound known as ethidium bromide followed by exposure to UV radiation.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Methods of INSERTION OF rDNA in Host Cells<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Micro-injection:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Biolistics or gene gun:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA in a method known as biolistic or gene gun.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">This method is suitable for plants<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Steps involved in process are:<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Isolation of genetic material:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> it is to isolate the desired DNA in its pure form I.e. free from other macromolecules.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Restriction enzyme digestion:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> restriction enzymes act molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific locations. These reactions are called restriction enzyme digestion.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Amplification using PCR:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> polymerase chain reaction or PCR is a method of making multiple copies of a DNA sequence using the enzyme z-DNA polymerase in vitro.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Ligation of DNA molecules:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> the process of joining two pieces together using the enzyme DNA ligase is a ligation.<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The resulting DNA molecules is a hybrid of two DNA molecules<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Hence this new hybrid DNA is also called a rDNA molecule and technology is referred as recombinant DNA technology.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Insertion of recombinant DNA into host<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Isolation of recombinant cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Applications<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Disease diagnosis- used to detect the presence of HIV in a person<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Food and agriculture- manufacture of GM crops and climate resilient crop<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Medicines- production of insulin<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Gene therapy-<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> it is used an attempt to correct the gene defects which give rise to hereditary diseases<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Development of vaccines and recombinant hormones<\/span><b><\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h9\"><\/a>Gene Editing<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Biotechnology<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> deals with techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce products and processes useful to humans.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The <\/span><b>two core techniques<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> that enabled birth of modern biotechnology are:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Genetic engineering:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA) to introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Bioprocess engineering:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-free) ambience in chemical engineering processes to enable growth of only the desired microbe\/eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, etc.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Types of gene editing<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Germline editing:\u00a0 <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400\">genome of an individual is edited in a way that the change is heritable. This is achieved through genetic alterations within the germ cells, or the reproductive cells, such as the egg and sperm.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Somatic cell gene editing: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Introduction of genes into bone marrow cells, blood cells, skin cells that will not be inherited later generations.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>How gene editing is done<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Enzymes which cut DNA are known as engineered nucleases.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is performed using enzymes, particularly nucleases whose purpose is to target a specific DNA sequence, where they introduce cuts into the DNA strands which enables the removal of existing DNA and the insertion of replacement DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Applications-\u00a0<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Treating inherited diseases\uf0e0 sickle cell anemia\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Helps to understand what specific genes do<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Prevents inheritance of genetic diseases<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Generates more resilient crops<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Detecting species in environment<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Genome Editing Techniques: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The core technologies now most used to facilitate genome editing, are :<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9)<\/b><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Transcription activator-like effector nucleases\u00a0 (TALENs)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Homing endonucleases or mega nucleases<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h10\"><\/a>Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and Cas9<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>CRISPR: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is the <\/span><b>DNA-targeting component<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> of the system, and it is made <\/span><b>up of an RNA molecule<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, or <\/span><b>&#8216;guide<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">,&#8217; that is engineered to attach to certain DNA bases via complementary base-pairing.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">): It is the <\/span><b>nuclease component<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> that cuts the DNA.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is an <\/span><b>enzyme<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It relies on guide RNA to find the DNA sequence of interest. It will then introduce a double strand break at a specific location within a strand of DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The CRISPR-Cas9 genetic scissors were discovered by E<\/span><b>mmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Do udna<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, who won the <\/span><b>Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h11\"><\/a>Gene Therapy<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is a therapy that <\/span><b>uses genes to prevent diseases<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It might allow doctors to <\/span><b>treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient\u2019s cells<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> instead of using drugs or surgery.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Types of gene therapy:<\/b> <b>Somatic<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> cell gene therapy and <\/span><b>Germline<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> gene therapy.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Advantages<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gene therapy has the potential to eliminate and prevent hereditary disease.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is possible to cure heart diseases, cancer and AIDS.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It can be used to discard diseases from the future generation.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h12\"><\/a>Types of cells (from perspective of Gene editing)<\/h2>\n<table style=\"border-style: solid\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Somatic cells\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td><b>Stem cell<\/b><\/td>\n<td><b>Reproductive cell<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Somatic cells are diploid cells, which contain two pairs of chromosomes, one received from each parent.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Any cell other than germ cells (sperm and egg), gametocytes (cells that divide to form germ cells), and undifferentiated stem cells are known as somatic cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Somatic cells are not capable of producing offspring. But, they form all the internal organs and tissues and contribute to their functionalities.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">They are responsible for growth, repair and regeneration.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>Some of the specialized somatic cells are:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Skin cells<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Muscle cells<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Nerve cells<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Blood cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Stem cells are body\u2019s raw material, i.e. cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are generated.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">They can divide through mitosis<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\ud83e\udc6a<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> single cell divided into two identical daughter cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Limitlessly to replenish other cell types of multi-cellular organisms throughout their life.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">After stem cell division, each newly produced cell can either remain as a stem cell or differentiate to form any other cell type with more defined functions, such as muscle cell, blood cell, or neural cell.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>Types of stem cells<\/strong>:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Embryonic Stem Cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Embryonic germ cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Adult Stem Cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>Application \u2013<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Treatment of brain diseases.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Treatment of blood diseases.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Treatment of cardiovascular.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tissue regeneration.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A cell whose nucleus unites with that of a cell of the opposite sex to form a new organism<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\ud83e\udc6a<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> reproductive cell.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gametes are an organism&#8217;s reproductive cells<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\ud83e\udc6a<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> sex cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Female gametes are called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called sperm.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gametes <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\ud83e\udc6a<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">these are haploid cells, and each cell carries only one copy of each chromosome.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gamete is capable of fusing with another haploid reproductive cell to form a <\/span><b>diploid zygote<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. The zygote is formed by the fusion (or combining) of two gametes, i.e. male gamete and female gamete. This union of gametes resulting in a zygote is called <\/span><b>fertilization.<\/b><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These reproductive cells are produced through <\/span><b>meiosis.<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"h13\"><\/a>Embryonic stem cells<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Found in the three germ layer of the embryo.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Inner cell mass of the embryo contains embryonic stem cells<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Embryonic stem cells are the most potent, as their job is to become every type of cell in the body. The full classification includes:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Totipotent<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: These stem cells can differentiate into all possible cell types. The first few cells that appear as the zygote starts to divide are totipotent.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Pluripotent<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: These cells can turn into almost any cell. Cells from the early embryo are pluripotent.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Multipotent<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: These cells can differentiate into a closely related family of cells. Adult hematopoietic stem cells, for example, can become red and white blood cells or platelets.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Oligopotent<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: These can differentiate into a few different cell types. Adult lymphoid or myeloid stem cells can do this.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent instead of totipotent because they cannot become part of the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h14\"><\/a>Stem cell therapy<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is the introduction of new adult stem cells into damaged tissue in order to treat an ailment or injury.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The ability of stem cells to self-renew and give rise to different cells that can potentially replace diseased and damaged areas in the body with minimal side effects.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A number of stem cell therapies exist, but most are at experimental stages, costly or controversial.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Any disease which involves tissue degeneration can be a potential disease for stem cell therapies. Some of them are:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tissue repair<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Alzheimer\u2019s disease<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Heart disease<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Severe burns\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Diabetes\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Spinal cord injury<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Leukemia and cancer<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Rheumatoid arthritis<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h15\"><\/a>Animal Cloning<\/h2>\n<p><b>Cloning<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: it is the process of generating identical copy of a cell or an organism.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Animal cloning<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Procedure of creating a whole new multi-cellular organism which is genetically identical to original organism.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Non-sexual process<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">No fertilization or inter-gamete contact takes place.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><b>Different levels of cloning<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular cloning<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Isolation of DNA sequence from any species (often a gene) in its insertion into a vector (host bacterium) for propagation without alteration.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cellular cloning<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Copies of cells are made resulting in the formation of identical cells from a single cell. This type of cloning is used in stem cell research.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Organism cloning<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A multi-cellular organism is created, genetically identical to other organism.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><b>Types of cloning\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gene cloning\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It creates copies of genes or segments of DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Reproductive cloning\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It involves the implantation of a cloned embryo into a real or an artificial uterus. The embryo develops into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Therapeutic\/ biomedical cloning<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is used to clone embryos for the purpose of extracting stem cells for use in replacing or repairing damaged tissues or organs, achieved by transferring a diploid nucleus from a body cell into an egg whose nucleus has been removed.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><b>Applications of cloning-<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Biomedical: disease models, bioreactors.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Agricultural:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">can be used to create copies of animals with highly valued traits, like dairy cow with high milk production<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Livestock improvement<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Genetic improvement<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Conservation of endangered species.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Research<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Stem cell research<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Understanding embryology.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h16\"><\/a>3- Parent baby<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A baby in which the vast majority of nuclear DNA comes from the mother and the father and a small amount of mitochondrial DNA comes from a female donor.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">This reproductive technology focuses on reducing the effects of mutations that occur in the DNA of mitochondria, which reside in cytoplasm. This could prevent the transmission to their offspring of mitochondria diseases.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">There are <\/span><b>two main techniques<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> involved:\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Mitochondrial spindle transfer:\u00a0<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Inside laboratory, scientists remove the nucleus from a healthy donor egg and replace it with a nucleus taken from the egg cell of a woman who carries a rare neurological disease called Leigh syndrome.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">This leaves the donor\u2019s healthy mitochondria intact. The scientists then fertilize the modified egg with the father\u2019s sperm.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">After this the &#8216;reconstructed embryo&#8217; is implanted into the mother\u2019s uterus.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Pronuclear transfer:\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">At the time of fertilization, genetic material is fused. One set comes from the egg and another comes from dad\u2019s sperm.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">At early stage in development, the two (egg and sperm) have not yet fused into a single nucleus.\u00a0 This is called Pronuclei.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pronuclei is the central, DNA-containing parts of fertilized eggs.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">In this technique researchers fertilize the mother mouse\u2019s egg and a donor egg at the same time. The pronuclei are removed from the donor\u2019s fertilized egg and discarded. These are then transferred to an egg cell containing a healthy mitochondria.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h17\"><\/a>Biofilms<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Biofilms are protective layers formed by bacteria to shield themselves from external threats.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These structures consist of sugars, proteins, lipids, and DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Found on various surfaces, including medical devices, tissues, and water pipelines.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h18\"><\/a>Bridge Recombinase Mechanism (BRM)<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Bridge Recombinase Mechanism is a naturally occurring genetic editing system found across all forms of life. It operates using mobile genetic elements, commonly known as jumping genes.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Jumping genes are small DNA segments that can move from one location in the genome to another.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">They consist of:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A recombinase enzyme that cuts and pastes DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Special DNA sequences at the ends that help bind and manipulate DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These genes can insert, delete, duplicate, invert, or rearrange segments of DNA, enabling real-time, flexible genome editing<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>BRM Different from other tools<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Unlike artificial tools like CRISPR-Cas9, BRM:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Is naturally existing<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Can manipulate very long DNA sequences<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Is capable of more complex and dynamic editing operations<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 data-start=\"123\" data-end=\"384\"><a id=\"h19\"><\/a>CAR T-Cell Therapy<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"123\" data-end=\"384\">CAR T-cell therapy is an advanced form of <strong data-start=\"190\" data-end=\"207\">immunotherapy<\/strong> where a patient\u2019s T cells are genetically modified to attack cancer. These modified cells produce <strong data-start=\"306\" data-end=\"343\">chimeric antigen receptors (CARs)<\/strong> that recognize and destroy cancer cells.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"386\" data-end=\"402\"><strong data-start=\"386\" data-end=\"400\">Key Steps:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ol data-start=\"403\" data-end=\"828\">\n<li data-start=\"403\" data-end=\"479\">\n<p data-start=\"406\" data-end=\"479\"><strong data-start=\"406\" data-end=\"427\">T Cell Collection<\/strong> \u2013 T cells are separated from the patient&#8217;s blood.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"480\" data-end=\"557\">\n<p data-start=\"483\" data-end=\"557\"><strong data-start=\"483\" data-end=\"506\">Genetic Engineering<\/strong> \u2013 T cells are modified in a lab to express CARs.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"558\" data-end=\"609\">\n<p data-start=\"561\" data-end=\"609\"><strong data-start=\"561\" data-end=\"574\">Expansion<\/strong> \u2013 Modified cells are multiplied.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"610\" data-end=\"691\">\n<p data-start=\"613\" data-end=\"691\"><strong data-start=\"613\" data-end=\"628\">Preparation<\/strong> \u2013 Patient may receive chemo to help CAR T cells work better.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"692\" data-end=\"755\">\n<p data-start=\"695\" data-end=\"755\"><strong data-start=\"695\" data-end=\"707\">Infusion<\/strong> \u2013 CAR T cells are infused back into the body.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"756\" data-end=\"828\">\n<p data-start=\"759\" data-end=\"828\"><strong data-start=\"759\" data-end=\"773\">Monitoring<\/strong> \u2013 Patients are observed for response and side effects.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"847\"><strong data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"845\">Advantages:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"850\" data-end=\"885\">Targets cancer cells specifically<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"888\" data-end=\"919\">May offer long-term remission<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"922\" data-end=\"971\">Helps patients unresponsive to other treatments<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"974\" data-end=\"1010\">Expanding use beyond blood cancers<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h20\"><\/a>Genome India Project<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Genome India Project is a national initiative to sequence and catalogue the genetic makeup of Indian populations.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is funded and coordinated by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science &amp; Technology.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The data is now available to researchers worldwide through the Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC), Faridabad.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Inspired by Human Genome Project.<\/span><b><\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"h21\"><\/a>Vaccination<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Vaccination is the process of administering a vaccine to stimulate an individual\u2019s immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Working:<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Exposure to Antigens<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The vaccine introduces antigens into the body, which the immune system detects as foreign.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Immune Response Activation<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: This detection triggers an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Memory Cell Formation<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Some of the immune cells become memory cells, which will remember the antigen.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Long-term Immunity<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: If the actual pathogen later infects the body, these memory cells recognize and respond more rapidly and effectively.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-336262 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/Vaccination.png?resize=461%2C497&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"461\" height=\"497\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/Vaccination.png?w=461&amp;ssl=1 461w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/Vaccination.png?resize=278%2C300&amp;ssl=1 278w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 461px) 100vw, 461px\" \/><\/p>\n<p><a id=\"h22\"><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/IMPORTANT-TOPICS-FROM-BIOTECHNOLOGY.docx.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Click here<\/a> to download pdf of Biotechnology<\/p>\n<p><em>To Read more about Prelims 20+ initiative<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/prelims20-a-free-initative-for-cse-prelims-2025\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Click here<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>In today\u2019s Prelims 20+, we focus on Biotechnology\u2014a dynamic and high-impact area within the Science and Technology section of the UPSC Civil Services Examination. With rapid advancements in genetic engineering, healthcare innovations, and agricultural biotechnology, this field remains a key driver of change in both national policy and global developments. Recent initiatives, regulatory updates, and&hellip; <a class=\"more-link\" href=\"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/day-4-prelims-20-biotechnology\/\">Continue reading <span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Day 4 Prelims 20+: Biotechnology<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":10367,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[12123],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-336255","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-prelims-20","entry"],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","views":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/336255","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/10367"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=336255"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/336255\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=336255"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=336255"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=336255"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}