{"id":3543,"date":"2026-08-11T22:11:42","date_gmt":"2026-08-11T16:41:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/political-parties-in-comparative-perspective\/"},"modified":"2026-08-12T02:57:39","modified_gmt":"2026-08-11T21:27:39","slug":"political-parties-in-comparative-perspective","status":"publish","type":"psir_note","link":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/political-parties-in-comparative-perspective\/","title":{"rendered":"Political parties in comparative perspective"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"n-wrap\">\n<div class=\"n-shell\">\n<div class=\"n-crumb\"><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/\">PSIR Notes<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/#ii-a\">II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><span>Political parties in comparative perspective<\/span><\/div>\n<header class=\"n-head\">\n<div class=\"n-eyebrow\">Paper I \u00b7 Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"n-title\">Political parties in comparative perspective<\/h1>\n<div class=\"n-syl\"><b>Syllabus \u00b7 Paper II-A \u00b7 3<\/b> \u2014 Politics of Representation and Participation : Political parties, pressure groups and social movements in advanced industrial and developing societies.<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"n-grid\">\n  <main class=\"n-body\"><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"what-a-political-party-is\">What a Political Party Is<\/h3>\n<p>Instruments of political organisation, representation and policy formulation \u2014 the bedrock of modern democratic governance.<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p><em>\u201cThere is no alternative to party government, save dictatorship, in any state of modern size. Government requires leaders, leaders require not an incoherent mob behind them, but an organized following able to canalize the issues for an electorate with a free choice.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p><cite>Harold J. Laski<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p><em>A party is \u201ca body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest upon some particular principles in which they are all agreed.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p><cite>Edmund Burke<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">A.H. Somjee<\/span> \u2014 parties uniquely connect citizens with policy-makers; central to representative government.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Zoya Hasan<\/span> \u2014 the party is a <span class=\"n-term\">keystone political institution<\/span> in the representative regime.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"functions-of-political-parties\">Functions of Political Parties<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Direction to government<\/span> \u2014 ruling parties steer the state and guide policy.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Elite recruitment<\/span> \u2014 the primary mechanism for recruiting and preparing candidates for office.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Interest aggregation<\/span> \u2014 multiple demands transformed into manageable proposals; a filter between society and the State.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Point of reference &amp; mobilisation<\/span> \u2014 help voters read politics and encourage participation.<\/li>\n<li>Defining aspects \u2014 organised hierarchical structure; shared ideology; the objective to govern.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"theories-of-political-parties\">Theories of Political Parties<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Two perspectives<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Normative<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">Edmund Burke<\/span>) \u2014 parties as people united by a common ideology working for the national interest.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Behavioural<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">Otto Kirchheimer<\/span>) \u2014 the primary objective is the acquisition of power; the rise of the <span class=\"n-term\">catch-all party<\/span> signals a decline in normative values such as ideology.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Marxist conception<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Class representation<\/span> \u2014 parties represent class interests; only the party of the <span class=\"n-term\">proletariat<\/span> has legitimacy.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Vladimir Lenin<\/span> \u2014 the Communist Party as a <span class=\"n-term\">vanguard<\/span> of elite intellectuals and activists, keeping Marxism pure and leading the working class to revolution.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Democratic centralism<\/span> \u2014 a bottom-up structure with centralised decision-making; the party as the disciplined leadership of the proletariat.<\/li>\n<li>Under the <span class=\"n-term\">dictatorship of the proletariat<\/span> the party often merges with the State; other parties abolished to prevent class conflict.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Other classic readings<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Max Weber<\/span> \u2014 modern parties as \u201cpowerhouses,\u201d bodies of people coming together to gain power.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">W.B. Munro<\/span> \u2014 no free democratic government without parties: they form government, offer opposition, create public opinion and serve as agents of political education and modernization.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Herman Finer<\/span> \u2014 parties are two-way communications binding citizens to policy-makers.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"the-classic-theorists-duverger-michels-neumann\">The Classic Theorists \u2014 Duverger, Michels, Neumann<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Maurice Duverger<\/span> \u2014 the <span class=\"n-term\">electoral system shapes the party system<\/span>; parties aim to acquire or share power. Party types by organisation \u2014 <span class=\"n-term\">branch<\/span> (liberal), <span class=\"n-em\">cell<\/span> (communist), <span class=\"n-term\">caucus<\/span> (rightist), <span class=\"n-term\">militia<\/span> (fascist). Even authoritarian regimes keep parties to project a semblance of democracy.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Robert Michels<\/span> \u2014 the <span class=\"n-term\">Iron Law of Oligarchy<\/span>: party power inevitably rests with a small self-perpetuating elite, regardless of ideology (the Indian National Congress often cited for elite domination).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Sigmund Neumann<\/span> \u2014 parties are critical to democracy, preventing rule by an unorganised mob; <span class=\"n-term\">multiparty<\/span> systems promote competition and diverse interests, while <span class=\"n-term\">one-party<\/span> systems tend toward totalitarianism.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Duverger&#8217;s Law \u2014 the electoral system shapes the party system.<\/span> <span class=\"n-term\">Single-ballot<\/span> (first-past-the-post) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Two-party system<\/span> (power alternates between two). <span class=\"n-term\">Proportional representation<\/span> (seats track vote share) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Multi-partyism<\/span> (coalition, wider representation).<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"classification-of-parties\">Classification of Parties<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Maurice Duverger (1951)<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Type<\/th>\n<th>Character &amp; examples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Elitist \/ traditional<\/td>\n<td>Not cadre-based, selective membership. <span class=\"n-term\">European type<\/span> \u2014 quality over quantity, strong central organisation, disciplined (UK Conservative, Labour). <span class=\"n-term\">American type<\/span> \u2014 less centralised, weak discipline, election- over ideology-focused, powerful local committees.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Mass parties<\/td>\n<td>Built on common people\u2019s support, often from popular movements (Indian National Congress, Aam Aadmi Party). <span class=\"n-term\">Socialist<\/span> (British Labour), <span class=\"n-term\">Communist<\/span> \u2014 \u201cdemocratic centralism\u201d (Communist Party of China), <span class=\"n-term\">Fascist<\/span> \u2014 force and militia (Mussolini\u2019s National Fascist Party).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Intermediate<\/td>\n<td>Features of both; <span class=\"n-term\">indirect parties<\/span> as coalitions of committees and groups (early British Labour, 1906). Parties in developing countries adopt UK, US or Soviet patterns; less organised, still evolving.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Hitchner and Levine (1964)<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Type<\/th>\n<th>Basis &amp; examples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Pragmatic<\/td>\n<td>Uncommitted to ideology; policy adjusts to circumstance (US Democrats and Republicans; Indian National Congress).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Doctrinal<\/td>\n<td>Firmly committed to a specific ideology (socialist and communist parties; the Bharatiya Janata Party with Hindutva).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Interest<\/td>\n<td>Represent specific groups, willing to compromise for leverage (Green and regional parties; Jharkhand Mukti Morcha for tribal interests).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"party-system-typologies\">Party-System Typologies<\/h3>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Party system<\/span> The way parties are structured within a political system<\/p>\n<p><cite>their number, relative strengths and interactions.<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Scholar<\/th>\n<th>Basis<\/th>\n<th>Types<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-sch\">Duverger<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Number, nature, majority composition<\/td>\n<td>Single-party; dominant-party; two-party; multiparty. By nature \u2014 disciplined\/rigid vs undisciplined\/flexible.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-sch\">Jean Blondel<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Electoral strength \/ vote share<\/td>\n<td>Two-party (two parties &gt; 90% of vote: US, UK); two-and-a-half-party (Germany, Canada); multiparty with a predominant party; multiparty without a predominant party.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-sch\">Giovanni Sartori<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Adds ideological polarization; counts only <span class=\"n-term\">relevant<\/span> parties<\/td>\n<td>Predominant-party; two-party; limited pluralism (moderate multiparty); extreme pluralism (polarized multiparty \u2014 unstable).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"types-of-party-systems-merits-criticisms\">Types of Party Systems \u2014 Merits &amp; Criticisms<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>System<\/th>\n<th>Merits<\/th>\n<th>Criticisms<\/th>\n<th>Examples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Two-party<\/td>\n<td>Stability, simplified choice, strong opposition<\/td>\n<td>Limited representation, minority marginalisation, stagnation<\/td>\n<td>US; historically UK<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Two-and-a-half<\/td>\n<td>Third party as \u201ckingmaker\u201d balancing stability and representation<\/td>\n<td>\u2014<\/td>\n<td>Germany; Canada<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Multiparty<\/td>\n<td>Diverse representation, collaboration, checks on authoritarianism<\/td>\n<td>Instability, slow decisions, policy inconsistency<\/td>\n<td>Netherlands, Switzerland; Italy, France<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>One-party<\/td>\n<td>Efficiency, stability, national unity<\/td>\n<td>Authoritarianism, suppressed freedoms, no accountability<\/td>\n<td>China, North Korea, Cuba<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Dominant-party<\/td>\n<td>Policy continuity, stability<\/td>\n<td>Democratic deficit, weak opposition<\/td>\n<td>Japan (LDP); South Africa (ANC); India (Congress 1947\u20131977)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p><span class=\"n-lab\">Institutionalized vs de-institutionalized<\/span> \u2014 institutionalised systems are stable, predictable and socially rooted (UK, Germany); de-institutionalised (inchoate) systems are volatile with weak organisations (parts of Latin America and Africa).<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"factors-shaping-party-systems\">Factors Shaping Party Systems<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Electoral systems<\/span> \u2014 majoritarian (FPTP) favour two-party systems; PR encourages multipartyism.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Social and cultural diversity<\/span> \u2014 diverse societies tend toward multiparty and regional\/interest-based parties.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Constitutional structure<\/span> \u2014 federalism encourages regional parties.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Degree of polarization<\/span> \u2014 wide ideological distances breed instability and gridlock.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">International influence<\/span> \u2014 globalization and bodies such as the EU affect domestic party dynamics.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Economic development<\/span> \u2014 less developed economies often have weakly institutionalised systems.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2021 \u00b7 20m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Explain the impact of electoral systems and cleavages in shaping party systems with reference to developing countries.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/explain-the-impact-of-electoral-systems-and-cleavages-in-shaping-upsc-psir-2021-2907\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\"><em>Sartori<\/em>* (relevance, not count) \u00b7 <\/span>Myron Weiner<span class=\"n-em\"> and <\/span>Joseph La Palombara<span class=\"n-term\"> (global typologies) \u00b7 district magnitude \u00b7 Duverger\u2019s Law \u00b7 India\u2019s FPTP yielding dominance-then-coalition \u00b7 a <\/span>cleavage<span class=\"n-term\"> as a historically determined social line \u00b7 caste, religion, language, ethnicity, class \u00b7 <\/span>Riggs*<em>\u2019s prismatic formalism.<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"critical-appraisal-the-partyless-democracy-debate\">Critical Appraisal &amp; the Partyless-Democracy Debate<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-lab\">Strengths<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Accord with human nature; foundation of democracy \u2014 without parties a modern state faces a \u201cchaos of individual opinions\u201d (<span class=\"n-term\">Hague and Harrop<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>Check on sudden public excitement; ease of elections.<\/li>\n<li>Opposition as a bulwark \u2014 <span class=\"n-sch\">James Bryce<\/span>: opposition parties keep political tyranny in check, guarding against despotism and majority tyranny.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Demerits<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Bias in public opinion; unnatural divisions; simplification into yes\/no choices; dominance by extremists; the spoils system (favouritism, nepotism); narrow vision; destabilisation through frequent power shifts.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Conservative rejection<\/span> \u2014 parties as obstacles to modernization; <span class=\"n-term\">George Washington<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Thomas Jefferson<\/span> saw them as divisive.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Parties vs direct \/ partyless democracy<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Samuel P. Huntington<\/span> (<em>Political Order in Changing Societies<\/em>) \u2014 banning parties breeds instability and authoritarianism; <span class=\"n-term\">strong party systems<\/span> channel mass participation; party-less systems become conservative and coup-prone.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Maurice Duverger<\/span> \u2014 states without healthy party systems cannot sustain engagement and risk becoming personalised cliques.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Utopian partyless democracy<\/span> \u2014 <span class=\"n-sch\">M.K. Gandhi<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">M.N. Roy<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Vinoba Bhave<\/span>; intellectually appealing but held impractical, since parties are essential for accountability.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"the-catch-all-party-the-spoils-system\">The Catch-All Party &amp; the Spoils System<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Catch-all party<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Otto Kirchheimer<\/span> coined <span class=\"n-term\">catch-all party<\/span> \u2014 the move from ideological loyalty toward broad appeal.<\/li>\n<li>Context \u2014 consensual post-war Western democracies (<span class=\"n-sch\">Robert Dahl<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Seymour Martin Lipset<\/span>; <span class=\"n-sch\">Daniel Bell<\/span>\u2019s \u201cpost-industrial society\u201d); a mid-1950s Milan conference declared the <span class=\"n-term\">end of ideology<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Alan Ware<\/span> \u2014 four drivers: reduced cleavages, no new cleavages, weaker ideological pull, and parties\u2019 capacity to transform quickly. Criticism \u2014 underrated the staying power of ideologically rooted parties such as the Greens.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The spoils system<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Appointing loyal party members to office; legitimised by <span class=\"n-term\">Andrew Jackson<\/span> in the 1820s, peaking 1860\u20131880.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">Civil Service Act of 1883<\/span> curtailed it by basing key positions on merit.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"parties-in-developing-societies\">Parties in Developing Societies<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Paul Webb<\/span> \u2014 many parties become the personal property of founding leaders, passed down family lines; charisma breeds personality worship that erases accountability.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Elite origins<\/span> \u2014 leaders often from business or landowning classes, distant from the poor.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Paul Pennings<\/span> \u2014 parties educate the public in democratic values and legal responsibilities.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Campaign funding<\/span> \u2014 escalating costs; ruling parties in Malaysia and Taiwan built business empires while opposition struggled.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Bienen and Herbst<\/span> \u2014 class-based mass mobilisation is minimal in most Third World countries; \u201cclass still is not a salient cleavage in most African countries\u201d; <span class=\"n-term\">religion<\/span> can become the basis of mobilisation.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">James Sundquist<\/span> \u2014 mass media, especially television, aided the institutionalisation of parties, though episodically by the 1980s.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Intermediate party system<\/span> \u2014 FPTP plus social cleavages and <span class=\"n-sch\">Riggs<\/span>\u2019s prismatic <span class=\"n-term\">formalism<\/span> produced intermediate parties, closer to mass than elitist (Swatantra, Janata 1977, the BJP as the new avatar of the Jana Sangh).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2024 \u00b7 15m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Critically examine the role of political parties in sustaining and stabilising democracies in the developing societies.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/critically-examine-the-role-of-political-parties-in-sustaining-upsc-psir-2024-2911\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\"><em>Huntington<\/em>* (institutionalising participation) \u00b7 <\/span>Robert Dahl<span class=\"n-term\"> (polyarchy, interest aggregation) \u00b7 <\/span>Larry Diamond<span class=\"n-term\"> (competition and accountability) \u00b7 weaknesses \u2014 <\/span>Richard Sandbrook<span class=\"n-term\"> (personalism), <\/span>Joel Migdal<span class=\"n-term\"> (\u201cstrong societies, weak states,\u201d clientelism), <\/span>Donald Horowitz*<em> (ethnic outbidding).<\/em><\/p>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2025 \u00b7 20m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Of late, centrist and centre-left political parties have been facing setbacks while centre-right parties have been in ascendency the world over. Comment.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/of-late-centrist-and-centre-left-political-parties-have-been-upsc-psir-2025-2912\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><em>left\/right\/centre distinctions \u00b7 the New Right as an electoral force across Western Europe, Canada, Australia, New Zealand \u00b7 right-wing populism = ethno-nationalism plus anti-elitism \u00b7 moderate right (<\/em><em>Edmund Burke<\/em><em>) vs the far right \u00b7 drivers \u2014 economic insecurity and cultural backlash \u00b7 consequences \u2014 polarisation and strain on democratic norms.<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"participation-identity-in-developing-societies\">Participation &amp; Identity in Developing Societies<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>In the West the <span class=\"n-term\">rule of law<\/span> governs political inputs and outputs; in developing societies <span class=\"n-term\">identity<\/span> holds the key to participation, since the rule of law is not fully institutionalised.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Lucian Pye<\/span> \u2014 non-Western political processes are communal, charismatic and loyalty-based; parties lack internal democracy and are dynastic.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Partha Chatterjee<\/span> \u2014 post-colonial India holds two societies: <span class=\"n-term\">civil society<\/span> (modernised) and <span class=\"n-term\">political society<\/span> (survival-driven), the latter thriving on identity politics where the rule of law is weak (hawkers, slum dwellers, small businesses).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Rajni Kothari<\/span> \u2014 <span class=\"n-term\">caste<\/span> as the basis of mobilisation and integration into the electoral process.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Yogendra Yadav<\/span> \u2014 the <span class=\"n-term\">democratic upsurge<\/span>: rising participation of the underprivileged in search of empowerment.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Benedict Anderson<\/span> \u2014 \u201cimagined communities\u201d: shared identity mobilises groups (ethnic mobilisation in Nigeria); <span class=\"n-sch\">B.R. Ambedkar<\/span> \u2014 mobilisation of Dalits and demands for affirmative action.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2018 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">How big a role does identity play in determining political participation in the developing countries? Discuss your answer with suitable illustrations.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/how-big-a-role-does-identity-play-in-determining-political-upsc-psir-2013-2903\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2020 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Has the increased participation of the underprivileged in the political process of the developing societies strengthened democracy or created political chaos and conflict? Comment.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/has-the-increased-participation-of-the-underprivileged-in-the-upsc-psir-2020-2906\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><em>Double edge (<\/em><em>Huntington<\/em><em>) \u2014 identity politics empowers the marginalised yet can deepen division. Risk of \u201cmobocracy\u201d (Mandal, communal violence; <\/em><em>V.S. Naipaul<\/em><em>\u2019s A Million Mutinies Now), but churn is not decay (<\/em><em>Riggs<\/em><em>\u2019s development trap; <\/em><em>John Dewey<\/em><em> on critical habits; <\/em><em>Antonio Gramsci<\/em><em> on subaltern participation).<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"low-voter-turnout-in-democracies\">Low Voter Turnout in Democracies<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Disillusionment and apathy<\/span> \u2014 the belief that one\u2019s vote does not matter; declining social capital (<span class=\"n-sch\">Robert Putnam<\/span>, <em>Bowling Alone<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Institutional barriers<\/span> \u2014 complex registration, inconvenient timing, restrictive voter-ID laws hitting low-income and minority voters (<span class=\"n-term\">Frances Fox Piven<\/span> and <span class=\"n-term\">Richard Cloward<\/span>, <em>Why Americans Don\u2019t Vote<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Voter fatigue<\/span> \u2014 frequent elections depress turnout (Switzerland; <span class=\"n-sch\">Mark Franklin<\/span> on election frequency).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Satisfaction with the status quo<\/span> \u2014 contentment lowers the felt need to vote (Japan; <span class=\"n-term\">Ronald Inglehart<\/span>\u2019s post-materialist values).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Crisis of legitimacy<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">Jurgen Habermas<\/span>) \u2014 corruption and unmet promises; Occupy Wall Street, Yellow Vest, Hong Kong protests. Rise of far-right candidates as resentment against the political class.<\/li>\n<li>Remedies \u2014 <span class=\"n-sch\">Amartya Sen<\/span>\u2019s \u201cdemocracy as a good in itself\u201d; electoral-funding reform, women\u2019s reservation, social audit, civil-society engagement.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2019 \u00b7 15m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Explain the reasons for low voter turnout in democratic countries with suitable examples.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/explain-the-reasons-for-low-voter-turnout-in-democratic-countries-upsc-psir-2019-2904\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"n-next\"><span><\/span><a class=\"r\" href=\"\/psir\/notes\/pressure-groups-in-comparative-perspective\/\"><em>Next<\/em><b>Pressure groups in comparative perspective<\/b><\/a><\/div>\n<p><\/main><\/p>\n<aside class=\"n-rail\">\n<h4>On this page<\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"#what-a-political-party-is\">What a Political Party Is<\/a><a href=\"#functions-of-political-parties\">Functions of Political Parties<\/a><a href=\"#theories-of-political-parties\">Theories of Political Parties<\/a><a href=\"#the-classic-theorists-duverger-michels-neumann\">The Classic Theorists \u2014 Duverger, Michels, Neumann<\/a><a href=\"#classification-of-parties\">Classification of Parties<\/a><a href=\"#party-system-typologies\">Party-System Typologies<\/a><a href=\"#types-of-party-systems-merits-criticisms\">Types of Party Systems \u2014 Merits &amp; Criticisms<\/a><a href=\"#factors-shaping-party-systems\">Factors Shaping Party Systems<\/a><a href=\"#critical-appraisal-the-partyless-democracy-debate\">Critical Appraisal &amp; the Partyless-Democracy Debate<\/a><a href=\"#the-catch-all-party-the-spoils-system\">The Catch-All Party &amp; the Spoils System<\/a><a href=\"#parties-in-developing-societies\">Parties in Developing Societies<\/a><a href=\"#participation-identity-in-developing-societies\">Participation &amp; Identity in Developing Societies<\/a><a href=\"#low-voter-turnout-in-democracies\">Low Voter Turnout in Democracies<\/a><\/aside>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Political parties in comparative perspective for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics \u203a Political parties in compara<\/p>\n","protected":false},"template":"","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"fx_note_key":"II-A.3.1","fx_note_sec":"II-A","fx_note_point":"3","fx_note_desc":"Political parties in comparative perspective for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics \u203a Political parties in compara","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-3543","psir_note","type-psir_note","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3543","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/psir_note"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3543\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3824,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3543\/revisions\/3824"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3543"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}