{"id":3545,"date":"2026-08-11T22:11:43","date_gmt":"2026-08-11T16:41:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/social-movements-in-comparative-perspective\/"},"modified":"2026-08-12T02:57:37","modified_gmt":"2026-08-11T21:27:37","slug":"social-movements-in-comparative-perspective","status":"publish","type":"psir_note","link":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/social-movements-in-comparative-perspective\/","title":{"rendered":"Social movements in comparative perspective"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"n-wrap\">\n<div class=\"n-shell\">\n<div class=\"n-crumb\"><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/\">PSIR Notes<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/#ii-a\">II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><span>Social movements in comparative perspective<\/span><\/div>\n<header class=\"n-head\">\n<div class=\"n-eyebrow\">Paper I \u00b7 Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"n-title\">Social movements in comparative perspective<\/h1>\n<div class=\"n-syl\"><b>Syllabus \u00b7 Paper II-A \u00b7 3<\/b> \u2014 Politics of Representation and Participation : Political parties, pressure groups and social movements in advanced industrial and developing societies.<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"n-grid\">\n  <main class=\"n-body\"><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"social-movement-definitions-origins\">Social Movement \u2014 Definitions &amp; Origins<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Srilatha Batliwala<\/span> \u2014 collective action in response to inequality, oppression or unmet demands; organised groups pursuing common agendas over time.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Turner and Killian<\/span> \u2014 loosely organised endeavours by large groups to achieve specific goals within constitutional limits; <span class=\"n-sch\">Toch<\/span> \u2014 collective efforts to address shared problems.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Rajni Kothari<\/span> \u2014 movements as <span class=\"n-term\">non-party political processes<\/span>, autonomous and distinct from conventional structures.<\/li>\n<li>Two defining features \u2014 <span class=\"n-term\">collective action<\/span> and the aim to <span class=\"n-term\">promote or resist change<\/span>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Origins<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"n-sch\">Lorenz von Stein<\/span> introduced the term (<em>History of the French Social Movement<\/em>), viewing movements as dynamic forces opposing the static state. Linked to democratisation and the Industrial Revolution; early British movements against slavery and for the franchise (<span class=\"n-sch\">Jeremy Bentham<\/span>); post-war peace and environmental movements.<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Factors \u2014 M.S.A. Rao<\/span> <span class=\"n-sch\">M.S.A. Rao<\/span>: <span class=\"n-term\">relative deprivation<\/span> (discontent drives change \u2014 the Naxalite movement), <span class=\"n-term\">structural strain<\/span> (norms clash with aspirations), <span class=\"n-term\">revitalization<\/span> (movements offer positive alternatives).<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<h3 id=\"old-vs-new-social-movements\">Old vs New Social Movements<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Basis<\/th>\n<th>Old social movements<\/th>\n<th>New social movements<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Emergence<\/td>\n<td>Late 18th\u2013early 19th century<\/td>\n<td>Post-1950s, advanced capitalist societies<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Focus<\/td>\n<td>Economic issues, economic security (labour rights, minimum wage)<\/td>\n<td>Non-material, post-material values \u2014 environment, human rights, quality of life, identity<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Agents<\/td>\n<td>Employers, workers, traders; via parties<\/td>\n<td>New middle class, educated youth, self-realization<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Methods<\/td>\n<td>Party channels, class action<\/td>\n<td>Innovative protest, decentralisation, participatory \u201cnew politics\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Jurgen Habermas<\/span> \u2014 the shift is a <span class=\"n-term\">silent revolution<\/span>, from economic security toward rights, quality of life and autonomy.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Rajni Kothari<\/span> \u2014 NSMs rose in the 1970s out of dissatisfaction with parliamentary democracy; elite capture pushed the marginalised toward <span class=\"n-term\">non-party political formations<\/span> (NGOs, women\u2019s, environmental, tribal).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Gail Omvedt<\/span> \u2014 NSMs offer new definitions of exploitation beyond Marxism, focusing on groups it ignored \u2014 Dalits, Shudras, women.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The \u201csilent revolution\u201d \u2014 the shift in collective action.<\/span> <span class=\"n-term\">Old SMs<\/span> (material \/ economic \u00b7 class-based \u00b7 through parties) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">New SMs<\/span> (identity &amp; culture \u00b7 post-material \u00b7 within civil society).<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"features-of-nsms-the-debate-on-newness\">Features of NSMs &amp; the Debate on \u2018Newness\u2019<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-lab\">Features<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Diverse social bases without a clear structural role (<span class=\"n-sch\">Hegedus<\/span>); plural ideologies (<span class=\"n-term\">Larana, Johnston and Gusfield<\/span>); focus on symbolic and cultural identity; the personal (dress, relationships, lifestyle); non-violent tactics; decentralised, segmented structures.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Alan Scott<\/span> \u2014 NSMs are primarily <span class=\"n-term\">social<\/span> and cultural, aiming to change values rather than seize power; they operate within <span class=\"n-term\">civil society<\/span>, defending it against technocratic states.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The newness debate<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Critics \u2014 similar movements existed since the Industrial Revolution; thin empirical evidence; \u201cnew middle class\u201d undefined; <span class=\"n-sch\">Francis Fukuyama<\/span> \u2014 old liberal values remain predominant even in post-industrial societies.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Andre Gunder Frank and Marta Fuentes<\/span> \u2014 some concerns (ecology, universal peace) are genuinely new, but many have historical antecedents; <span class=\"n-sch\">Ramachandra Guha<\/span> \u2014 \u201cempty stomach\u201d environmentalism of the South vs the \u201cfull stomach\u201d environmentalism of the North.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><em>the material-to-post-material shift (<\/em><em>Habermas<\/em><em>\u2019s silent revolution); diverse base (<\/em><em>Hegedus<\/em><em>); plural ideologies; identity and the personal; non-violent, networked repertoires; civil-society location (<\/em><em>Alan Scott<\/em><em>); <\/em><em>Habermas<\/em><em> and <\/em><em>Claus Offe<\/em><em> beyond Marxist class reductionism.<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"theories-of-social-movements\">Theories of Social Movements<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Theory<\/th>\n<th>Proponents<\/th>\n<th>Core idea<\/th>\n<th>Criticism<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Collective behaviour<\/td>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Smelser, Turner, Killian, Parsons<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Semi-rational response to structural strain; generalised belief and mobilisation<\/td>\n<td>Treats movements as abnormal; weak on causes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Resource mobilization<\/td>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">John McCarthy, Mayer Zald<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Rational, strategic use of resources and organisation<\/td>\n<td>Overlooks deeper contradictions and context<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>New social movement<\/td>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Jurgen Habermas, Claus Offe<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Products of late capitalism; autonomy, identity, anti-technocracy<\/td>\n<td>Limited to post-industrial societies<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Action-identity<\/td>\n<td><span class=\"n-sch\">Alain Touraine<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Post-industrial conflicts are socio-cultural; <span class=\"n-term\">technocracy<\/span> the dominant class; struggle over knowledge and investment<\/td>\n<td>Struggles to balance industrial and post-industrial strains<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p><em>Limits of classical Marxism \u2014 economic and class-identity reductionism (<\/em><em>Canel<\/em><em>). Variations within NSM theory \u2014 <\/em><em>Jean Cohen and Alberto Melucci<\/em><em> (civil-society action), <\/em><em>Inglehart and Dalton<\/em><em> (post-materialism), <\/em><em>Hunt, Benford and Snow<\/em><em> (identity via interaction), <\/em><em>Melucci and Gusfield<\/em><em> (<\/em><em>submerged networks<\/em><em>).<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"identity-autonomy-resistance\">Identity, Autonomy &amp; Resistance<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Bertaux<\/span> \u2014 subjectivity is central; participants driven by moral feeling, not self-interest. <span class=\"n-sch\">Alberto Melucci<\/span> \u2014 collective identity is constructed and negotiated through networks.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Ron Eyerman and Andrew Jamison<\/span> \u2014 movements generate new ideas by challenging dominant assumptions: <span class=\"n-term\">cognitive praxis<\/span>. <span class=\"n-term\">Jean-Paul Sartre<\/span> \u2014 atomised individuals can rapidly become a unified group on recognising shared discontent. Marxian \u2014 the shift from <span class=\"n-term\">class-in-itself<\/span> to <span class=\"n-term\">class-for-itself<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Alan Scott<\/span> \u2014 three dimensions of autonomy: personal autonomy (women\u2019s liberation), its extension to the group, and the autonomy struggle to pursue goals free of interference; personal freedoms are political.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Anthony Giddens<\/span> \u2014 actors convert resources to control their conditions; <span class=\"n-sch\">Michael Mann<\/span> \u2014 compliance stems from a lack of means, not will; <span class=\"n-sch\">James C. Scott<\/span> \u2014 the <span class=\"n-term\">hidden transcript<\/span>: subordinates critique power through rumour, song and jokes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"types-scope-of-movements\">Types &amp; Scope of Movements<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">By aim<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Migratory<\/span> (large-scale migration \u2014 Bangladesh to India); <span class=\"n-term\">reform<\/span> (partial change, thrives in democracies); <span class=\"n-term\">revolutionary<\/span> (overthrow the system \u2014 French, Russian); <span class=\"n-term\">resistance \/ reactionary<\/span> (push back \u2014 fundamentalist movements, the Ku Klux Klan); <span class=\"n-term\">alternative<\/span> (individual behaviour change). Also rigid, traditional (the Luddites) and group- vs individual-based.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">By scope<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Trans-national \/ global<\/span> (World Social Forum); <span class=\"n-term\">localized<\/span> (environmental, cultural); <span class=\"n-term\">multi-layer<\/span> (local to international).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"movements-pressure-groups-parties\">Movements, Pressure Groups &amp; Parties<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Channel<\/th>\n<th>Character<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Political parties<\/td>\n<td>Structured, hierarchical, electoral, centralised decision-making (<span class=\"n-sch\">Michels<\/span>\u2019 iron law of oligarchy)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Pressure groups<\/td>\n<td>Lobby, represent specific interests, work within established systems; often extensions of market activity<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Social movements<\/td>\n<td>Extra-parliamentary mass struggle from below; loose, decentralised, issue-focused; broaden participation, often against market interests<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Civil disobedience<\/span> is a tactic within movements, not a synonym \u2014 popularised by <span class=\"n-sch\">Henry David Thoreau<\/span>, used by <span class=\"n-sch\">M.K. Gandhi<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Martin Luther King Jr.<\/span>; movements reject definite political affiliation.<\/p>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2016 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Comment on the decline of political parties and examine whether new social movements shall be alternative strategy for establishing link between government and society.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/comment-on-the-decline-of-political-parties-and-examine-whether-upsc-psir-2016-2901\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\"><em>Alan Rosenthal<\/em>* (worldwide decline of representative democracy) \u00b7 <\/span>Pierre Rosanvallon*<em> (\u201cpost-representative\u201d) \u00b7 empirical signs \u2014 falling turnout, shrinking membership, personalisation \u00b7 movements as an alternative link (the Section 377 judgment) \u00b7 net \u2014 they supplement, not substitute, parties.<\/em><\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p><span class=\"n-lab\">UPSC 2013<\/span> \u2014 Is the rise of social movements a sign of the opening up of popular space in the political process or the decline of representative politics? Examine.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\"><em>Hannah Arendt<\/em>* (concerted collective action) \u00b7 <\/span>Habermas<span class=\"n-term\"> (the public sphere) \u00b7 <\/span>Nancy Fraser<span class=\"n-term\"> (the counterpublic) \u00b7 opening of space (Arab Spring, anti-apartheid, Chipko) vs decline of representation (<\/span>Burke<span class=\"n-term\">, <\/span>Oakeshott<span class=\"n-term\">, <\/span>Nisbet<span class=\"n-term\">; <\/span>Eric Hoffer<span class=\"n-term\">, <\/span>Christopher Lasch*<em>).<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"movements-in-india-latin-america\">Movements in India &amp; Latin America<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">India<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Collective identities of caste, ethnicity, gender and region \u2014 the <span class=\"n-term\">Kamtapur Movement<\/span> (Rajbanshi autonomy), the <span class=\"n-term\">Telangana Statehood Movement<\/span>, the <span class=\"n-term\">Maadiga and Thudum Debba<\/span> movements (re-categorisation of SCs and STs).<\/li>\n<li>Also the Chipko Movement, Narmada Bachao Andolan, the anti-corruption movement, <span class=\"n-term\">Pinjra Tod<\/span> (2015), <span class=\"n-term\">Bekhauf Azadi<\/span> (2017), the online #MeToo movement and the Kudankulam protest.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Latin America<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Theory adapted to local conditions \u2014 control of resources, civil liberties, origins in civil society under repressive regimes, a shift to rural areas (the <span class=\"n-term\">Chiapas\/Zapatistas<\/span> in Mexico); peripheral problems under global capitalism and rural identity, often ignored in Western theory.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2022 \u00b7 15m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Discuss the role of social movements in strengthening the democratic processes in developing societies.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/discuss-the-role-of-social-movements-in-strengthening-the-upsc-psir-2022-2909\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\"><em>Sidney Tarrow<\/em>* (the state as target) \u00b7 <\/span>Charles Tilly*<em> (high- vs low-capacity democratic states) \u00b7 movements give minorities a platform \u00b7 the Aam Aadmi Party from Anna Hazare\u2019s 2011 strike \u00b7 Myanmar; yet movements can also work against democracy.<\/em><\/p>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2024 \u00b7 20m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Discuss the major recent social movements related to the physical rights of women in various countries of the world.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/discuss-the-major-recent-social-movements-related-to-the-physical-upsc-psir-2024-2910\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><em>women\u2019s rights to bodily safety and health; the #MeToo campaign; safe and legal abortion (<\/em><em>Amnesty International<\/em><em> in Argentina, Ireland, Poland, South Korea); WHO\/UN \u2014 nearly one in three women face intimate-partner or sexual violence; the 2030 target.<\/em><\/p>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2017 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Examine the LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender) movement in developed societies and how it is affecting the political participation in developing societies.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/examine-the-lgbt-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender-movement-in-upsc-psir-2017-2902\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><em>LGBT as an NSM tied to quality of life; recognition under the third generation of human rights (<\/em><em>Karel Vasak<\/em><em>); the NALSA judgment (2014); the Navtej Singh Johar case striking down Section 377; transgender candidates and widened participation.<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"nsms-in-developed-vs-developing-societies\">NSMs in Developed vs Developing Societies<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Dimension<\/th>\n<th>Developing societies<\/th>\n<th>Developed societies<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Stage<\/td>\n<td>Still focused on basic needs; little separate identity from older movements<\/td>\n<td>Shifted to quality-of-life concerns; more advanced activism<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Strategies<\/td>\n<td>Strikes, dharnas, protests (Narmada Bachao Andolan)<\/td>\n<td>Research, conferences, seminars, structured debate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Leadership<\/td>\n<td>Political class or veterans of earlier movements<\/td>\n<td>Highly educated, elite sections<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Scope<\/td>\n<td>Issues that directly affect participants<\/td>\n<td>Also the global commons \u2014 climate, wildlife, others\u2019 heritage<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2019 \u00b7 15m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Write an essay on \u2018New Social Movements\u2019 in developing countries.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/write-an-essay-on-new-social-movements-in-developing-countries-upsc-psir-2019-2905\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><em>not every human demand is material (Marxist reductionism cannot grasp them); youth, feminist, peace, ecological and civil-rights movements; <\/em><em>Habermas<\/em><em> reads them as protests against the size and rationality of the state; <\/em><em>Subrata Mukherjee and Sushila Ramaswamy<\/em><em> on decentralised organisation; <\/em><em>Manuel Castells<\/em><em> (networked resilience); <\/em><em>Nancy Fraser<\/em><em> (recognition and redistribution); <\/em><em>Vandana Shiva<\/em><em> and <\/em><em>Ramachandra Guha<\/em><em>; <\/em><em>Asef Bayat<\/em><em>\u2019s caution against romanticising NSMs.<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"criticisms-assessment\">Criticisms &amp; Assessment<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Criticisms of NSMs \u2014 lack of novelty; thin empirical evidence; a one-sided leftist focus; undefined terms (\u201cnew middle class\u201d); the predominance of old liberal values (<span class=\"n-sch\">Francis Fukuyama<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>Yet NSMs mark a real shift \u2014 changing values, structures and identities; they challenge older, especially Marxist, theories by stressing non-material goals and new identities, and contribute to democracy by raising issues formal structures overlook.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The synthesis \u2014 three complementary channels between society and the state.<\/span> <span class=\"n-term\">Society<\/span> (demands \u00b7 interests \u00b7 identities) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Three channels<\/span> (parties \u00b7 pressure groups \u00b7 movements \u2014 complementary, not rivals) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">The State<\/span> (authoritative decisions &amp; policy).<\/p>\n<p>Their relative weight shifts with the nature of the state \u2014 capitalist or socialist, developed or developing \u2014 and with the depth of democratisation. Parties remain indispensable for aggregating interests and forming governments; pressure groups and movements widen the space in which citizens act between elections.<\/p>\n<div class=\"n-next\"><a href=\"\/psir\/notes\/pressure-groups-in-comparative-perspective\/\"><em>Previous<\/em><b>Pressure groups in comparative perspective<\/b><\/a><span><\/span><\/div>\n<p><\/main><\/p>\n<aside class=\"n-rail\">\n<h4>On this page<\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"#social-movement-definitions-origins\">Social Movement \u2014 Definitions &amp; Origins<\/a><a href=\"#old-vs-new-social-movements\">Old vs New Social Movements<\/a><a href=\"#features-of-nsms-the-debate-on-newness\">Features of NSMs &amp; the Debate on \u2018Newness\u2019<\/a><a href=\"#theories-of-social-movements\">Theories of Social Movements<\/a><a href=\"#identity-autonomy-resistance\">Identity, Autonomy &amp; Resistance<\/a><a href=\"#types-scope-of-movements\">Types &amp; Scope of Movements<\/a><a href=\"#movements-pressure-groups-parties\">Movements, Pressure Groups &amp; Parties<\/a><a href=\"#movements-in-india-latin-america\">Movements in India &amp; Latin America<\/a><a href=\"#nsms-in-developed-vs-developing-societies\">NSMs in Developed vs Developing Societies<\/a><a href=\"#criticisms-assessment\">Criticisms &amp; Assessment<\/a><\/aside>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Social movements in comparative perspective for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics \u203a Social movements in comparati<\/p>\n","protected":false},"template":"","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"fx_note_key":"II-A.3.3","fx_note_sec":"II-A","fx_note_point":"3","fx_note_desc":"Social movements in comparative perspective for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics \u203a Social movements in comparati","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-3545","psir_note","type-psir_note","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3545","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/psir_note"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3545\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3822,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3545\/revisions\/3822"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3545"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}