{"id":3552,"date":"2026-08-11T22:11:56","date_gmt":"2026-08-11T16:41:56","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/national-interest-security-and-power\/"},"modified":"2026-08-12T02:57:34","modified_gmt":"2026-08-11T21:27:34","slug":"national-interest-security-and-power","status":"publish","type":"psir_note","link":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/national-interest-security-and-power\/","title":{"rendered":"National interest, security and power"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"n-wrap\">\n<div class=\"n-shell\">\n<div class=\"n-crumb\"><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/\">PSIR Notes<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/#ii-a\">II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><span>National interest, security and power<\/span><\/div>\n<header class=\"n-head\">\n<div class=\"n-eyebrow\">Paper I \u00b7 Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"n-title\">National interest, security and power<\/h1>\n<div class=\"n-syl\"><b>Syllabus \u00b7 Paper II-A \u00b7 6<\/b> \u2014 Key Concepts in International Relations : <span class=\"cur\">National interest, security and power<\/span>; Balance of power and deterrence; Transational actors and collective security; World capitalist economy and globalisation.<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"n-grid\">\n  <main class=\"n-body\"><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-concepts-and-why-they-are-contested\">The Concepts, and Why They Are Contested<\/h3>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p><em>\u201cInternational politics is a struggle for power.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p><cite>Hans Morgenthau<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<ul>\n<li>This unit supplies the vocabulary through which states read and act on the world \u2014 <span class=\"n-term\">national interest<\/span>, <span class=\"n-term\">power<\/span>, <span class=\"n-term\">security<\/span>, <span class=\"n-term\">balance of power<\/span> and <span class=\"n-term\">deterrence<\/span>, <span class=\"n-term\">transnational actors<\/span>, <span class=\"n-term\">collective security<\/span>, the <span class=\"n-term\">world capitalist economy<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>Every concept is contested \u2192 realism, liberalism, constructivism, Marxism and the critical approaches read the same word differently; no single definition closes the debate.<\/li>\n<li>The thread running through the unit \u2192 how states pursue survival and advantage under anarchy, and how far that account survives globalisation, interdependence and non-state actors.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"national-interest-meaning-nature-components\">National Interest \u2014 Meaning, Nature, Components<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>The foreign-policy equivalent of public interest; the material on which foreign policy is built.<\/li>\n<li>Two layers \u2192 a <span class=\"n-term\">constant \/ permanent motivation<\/span> (survival) and a <span class=\"n-term\">variable content<\/span> that shifts with systemic factors.<\/li>\n<li>Core interest \u2192 security, sovereignty, strategic autonomy. Variable interest \u2192 India\u2019s non-alignment in the Cold War shifting to multi-alignment thereafter.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Hans Morgenthau<\/span> ties survival to three identities \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">physical<\/span> (territory), <span class=\"n-term\">political<\/span> (the political-economic system), <span class=\"n-term\">cultural<\/span> (historical values).<\/li>\n<li>Broader components \u2192 economic, security, geopolitical, ideological \/ cultural interest.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"classification-thomas-w-robinson-s-six-categories\">Classification \u2014 Thomas W. Robinson\u2019s Six Categories<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Category<\/th>\n<th>Content and illustration<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Primary<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Non-negotiable \u2192 political, cultural and physical integrity.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Secondary<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Protection of citizens abroad; diplomatic immunities.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Permanent<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Enduring \u2192 the USA\u2019s control of sea-lanes.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Variable<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Contingent on leadership, party politics, narrative.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">General<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Broad goals shared across states \u2192 peace, disarmament, arms control.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Specific<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Logical extensions in time and space \u2192 India advocating a new international economic order.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"definitions-and-the-four-readings\">Definitions, and the Four Readings<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Charles Lerche<\/span> \u2192 \u201cthe fulfilment of general, long term and continuing purpose which the state, the nation, and the government all see themselves as serving.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Vernon Van Dyke<\/span> \u2192 what states seek to protect or achieve in relation to each other.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Approach<\/th>\n<th>National interest is\u2026<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Realist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Rooted in human nature and the drive for power. <span class=\"n-sch\">Morgenthau<\/span>: \u201cThe main signpost that helps political realism find its way is the concept of interest defined in terms of power.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Liberal<\/span><\/td>\n<td>An aggregation of domestic group preferences; pursued through cooperation, trade and institutions.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Constructivist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Not objectively given but socially constructed through interaction (<span class=\"n-sch\">Alexander Wendt<\/span>); preferences are changeable, not a priori.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Marxist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>A mask for the ruling class; an obfuscation of class conflict \u2014 rivalry among capitalist powers presented as the nation\u2019s interest.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"an-essentially-contested-concept\">An Essentially Contested Concept<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Joseph Frankel<\/span> \u2192 the search for a theory of national interest is futile; the term is used so loosely it defies definition (he cites the Pakistani Army invoking \u201cnational interest\u201d for self-interested ends).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Raymond Aron<\/span> \u2192 a <span class=\"n-term\">pseudo-theory<\/span>. <span class=\"n-sch\">K.J. Holsti<\/span> \u2192 \u201cas an object of inquiry [it] is a bottomless pit.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Furniss and Snyder<\/span> \u2192 \u201cnational interest is what the nation decides it is.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Charles Beard<\/span> \u2192 a deceptive term serving ruling elites. <span class=\"n-sch\">Scott Burchill<\/span> \u2192 used for legitimation but lacking substance.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Achin Vanaik<\/span> \u2192 its power derives from being a <span class=\"n-term\">principle of legitimation<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>Despite the vagueness, the concept is indispensable for describing, explaining and justifying state behaviour \u2192 <span class=\"n-sch\">Henry Kissinger<\/span>: discerning national interest is essential to effective policy.<\/li>\n<li>Illustration \u2192 \u201cnational interest\u201d has justified Russia\u2019s action in Ukraine, US weapons programmes, and the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2022 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">National Interest is an essentially contested concept. Comment.<\/span><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"instruments-and-methods-of-promotion\">Instruments and Methods of Promotion<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Instrument<\/th>\n<th>Working content<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Diplomacy<\/span><\/td>\n<td>The oldest and most effective method \u2192 negotiation on behalf of sovereigns.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Propaganda<\/span><\/td>\n<td>The art of persuading others of the rightness of one\u2019s goals; <span class=\"n-sch\">Francine Frankel<\/span>\u2019s \u201csystematic attempt to affect the minds, emotions and actions of a group\u201d (Hitler, Mussolini); soft-power projection.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Alliances and treaties<\/span><\/td>\n<td>NATO, the Warsaw Pact; Panchsheel (mutual non-aggression and non-interference).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Economic means<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Aid, grants, loans; China\u2019s debt diplomacy through the BRI (\u201ccheque-book diplomacy\u201d).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Coercion \u2014 the stick<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Intervention, embargoes, sanctions, boycotts, reprisals, retorsion (CAATSA).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Non-state \/ deep-state route<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Hiding behind non-state actors \u2192 Pakistan\u2019s use of terrorism against India.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Diaspora<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Remittances, cultural exchange, technology transfer (India\u2013Nepal, India\u2013Bhutan).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Technology and IOs<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Virtual summits; UN and WHO platforms shaping a conducive environment.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p><em>Realist toolkit \u2192 military build-up, balance of power, intelligence, strategic autonomy. Liberal toolkit \u2192 institutions, international law, economic interdependence, soft power, development assistance. Globalisation and technology keep adding to both.<\/em><\/p>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2016 \u00b7 20m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Explain the instruments and methods devised for the promotion of national interest.<\/span><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"the-dynamic-nature-and-whose-interest\">The Dynamic Nature \u2014 and \u201cWhose Interest?\u201d<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Core interests stay constant; dynamic interests shift with systemic change (<span class=\"n-sch\">Morgenthau<\/span>) \u2192 leadership, narrative and the balance of forces all move the content.<\/li>\n<li>China aligned with the USA for growth, then turned assertive as its power grew \u2192 interest is adaptive.<\/li>\n<li>US insistence on freedom of navigation in the South China Sea as a \u201ccore\u201d interest; North Korea\u2013US deterrence dynamics; diplomacy advancing dynamic interest (the JCPOA, 2015); propaganda reshaping interest-narratives (the Russia\u2013Ukraine information war).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Whose interest?<\/span> \u2192 governments frame it as collective will, but elites, lobbies and ideology shape it \u2014 US\u2013China rivalry benefiting defence and manufacturing; Brexit framed as sovereignty yet opposed by business and youth; Atmanirbhar Bharat and India\u2019s Ukraine neutrality contested at home; fossil-fuel lobbies weakening climate commitments.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"power-meaning-definitions-features\">Power \u2014 Meaning, Definitions, Features<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>A <span class=\"n-term\">relational<\/span> concept \u2192 the capacity to shape the behaviour of others.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Hans Morgenthau<\/span> \u2192 the ability to influence the thoughts and actions of others.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Georg Schwarzenberger<\/span> \u2192 the capacity to impose one\u2019s will on others through effective sanctions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p><em>\u201cA has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p><cite>Robert Dahl<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<ul>\n<li>Dahl\u2019s reading \u2192 power is relational, multidimensional and impermanent.<\/li>\n<li>Evolution \u2192 from the military-centric view of the classical realists (<span class=\"n-sch\">Thucydides<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Machiavelli<\/span>) to the economic and soft-power dimensions of modern theory.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-lab\">Features<\/span> \u2192 both a <span class=\"n-term\">means and an end<\/span>; <span class=\"n-term\">dynamic and relative<\/span> (India\u2019s standing fell after 1962, recovered after 1965 and 1971); <span class=\"n-term\">actual vs potential<\/span> (available strength vs latent capacity mobilised in crisis); <span class=\"n-term\">unequal<\/span> \u2014 no two nations hold equal power.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"elements-and-dimensions\">Elements and Dimensions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Elements<\/span> \u2192 geography and location (<span class=\"n-term\">Napoleon<\/span>\u2019s emphasis; England\u2019s naval rise), size, natural resources (US near-self-sufficiency), demography, military power, economic status, social cohesion (homogeneity strengthens, heterogeneity complicates), technology and R&amp;D, intelligence (RAW, IB), leadership and personality.<\/li>\n<li>Elements skilfully used become <span class=\"n-term\">determinants<\/span> of power.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Dimensions<\/span> \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">military<\/span> (a precondition for great-power recognition), <span class=\"n-term\">economic<\/span> (satisfies needs; controls others by granting or denying access to goods and services), <span class=\"n-term\">psychological<\/span> (opinion, image, propaganda, persuasive negotiation \u2014 amplified by mass media, NGOs and social movements). The three are inseparable.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"classification-of-states-by-power\">Classification of States by Power<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Class<\/th>\n<th>Test<\/th>\n<th>Examples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Superpowers<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Cannot be defeated by all enemies combined<\/td>\n<td>USA, USSR (Cold War)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Great powers<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Defend their interests on their own<\/td>\n<td>Russia, France, UK<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Middle powers<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Defend their interests through coalitions<\/td>\n<td>India, Australia, Turkey, Israel, Germany<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Small powers<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Need assistance even with coalitions<\/td>\n<td>Maldives, Bhutan, Sri Lanka<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"types-of-power-hard-soft-smart-sharp-fast\">Types of Power \u2014 Hard \u00b7 Soft \u00b7 Smart \u00b7 Sharp \u00b7 Fast<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The two poles \u2014 and the four newer coinages between them<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>HARD POWER<\/th>\n<th>SOFT POWER \u2014 JOSEPH NYE<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Coercion and command \u2014 military and economic sticks; most effective against weaker states<\/td>\n<td>Co-option and attraction \u2014 making others want what you want<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-sch\">Christopher Walker<\/span> \u2014 <span class=\"n-term\">sharp power<\/span>: manipulative influence by authoritarian states (Russia, China) exploiting the openness of democracies.<\/td>\n<td><span class=\"n-sch\">John Chipman<\/span> \u2014 <span class=\"n-term\">fast power<\/span>: speed as a determinant of national power; \u201csurvival of the fastest\u201d \u2014 rapid deployment, adaptability, fast-track diplomacy.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p><em>SMART POWER \u2014 coined by <\/em><em>Suzanne Nossel<\/em><em>, popularised by <\/em><em>Joseph Nye<\/em><em>: the two, mutually reinforcing (carrot + stick). India at Doklam \u2014 rapid troop deployment alongside the Wuhan Summit.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Nye\u2019s three sources of soft power:<\/span> Culture \u2014 when attractive \u00b7 Political values \u2014 democracy, human rights, rule of law, applied consistently \u00b7 Foreign policies \u2014 when seen as legitimate and just<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Instruments \u2192 cultural diplomacy, education, media, public diplomacy \u2014 China\u2019s broadcasting, the EU\u2019s multilateralism, India\u2019s yoga diplomacy.<\/li>\n<li>Relevance \u2192 complements hard power; central to reform of multilateral institutions, climate justice, peacekeeping and non-proliferation; its weight rises with interdependence and information technology.<\/li>\n<li>Limit \u2192 <span class=\"n-sch\">Dhruv Jaishankar<\/span>: soft power not backed by hard power is pointless \u2014 hence Nye\u2019s own call for smart power. Attraction supplements material capability; it does not replace it.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2018 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">What, according to Joseph Nye, are the major sources of a country\u2019s soft power? Discuss its relevance in contemporary world politics.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/what-according-to-joseph-nye-are-the-major-sources-of-a-countrys-upsc-psir-2013-3205\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"scholarly-views-and-the-constructivist-reading\">Scholarly Views, and the Constructivist Reading<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Kenneth Waltz<\/span> \u2192 a bipolar order is the most stable; national interests align with bloc interests.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Robert Gilpin<\/span> (<em>War and Change in International Politics<\/em>) \u2192 states alter the system as their interests evolve, using military, economic and technological capabilities.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">John Mearsheimer<\/span> (offensive neorealism) \u2192 a hegemon strengthens itself and weakens rivals to dominate its region.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Joseph Nye<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Robert Keohane<\/span> (<em>Power and Interdependence<\/em>) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">asymmetrical interdependence<\/span> is itself a power resource.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Constructivist view<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Power is rooted in shared meanings, identities and norms, not fixed material facts \u2192 we never see the world through naked eyes.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Nicholas Onuf<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Alexander Wendt<\/span> \u2192 ideas shape how states define interests and threats \u2014 and ideas can change.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Giambattista Vico<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Immanuel Kant<\/span> \u2192 the social world is human-made and filtered through consciousness; intersubjective meanings produce outcomes.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Anthony Giddens<\/span> (<span class=\"n-term\">structuration<\/span>) \u2192 by thinking differently, actors can transform structures \u2014 including anarchy itself.<\/li>\n<li>Challenge to realism \u2192 anarchy and the security dilemma are intersubjective, not given. Challenge to liberalism \u2192 it goes past institutions, democracy and trade to ask how an issue becomes \u201csecurity\u201d at all.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p><em>\u201cAnarchy is what states make of it.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p><cite>Alexander Wendt<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<h3 id=\"polarity-of-power\">Polarity of Power<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>The structure of the international system read off the distribution of great-power capability \u2192 unipolar, bipolar, multipolar.<\/li>\n<li>A vague concept \u2192 <span class=\"n-sch\">Morgenthau<\/span> noted four connotations of \u201cbalance,\u201d <span class=\"n-sch\">Ernst Haas<\/span> eight.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Unipolar<\/span> \u2192 one preponderant power, no comparable rival. <span class=\"n-sch\">Monteiro<\/span>\u2019s features \u2192 an anarchic system, no balance of power, mutual relations without overarching control; proponent <span class=\"n-sch\">William Wohlforth<\/span>. Risk \u2192 an overstretched hyperpower turning megalomaniac.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Bipolar<\/span> \u2192 two blocs; alignment, competition, zero-sum dynamics (the Cold War).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Multipolar<\/span> \u2192 several centres competing to fill vacuums (the Concert of Europe, the interwar period).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The stability debate \u2014 how structural realism ranks the three.<\/span> <span class=\"n-term\">Bipolar \u2014 most stable<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">Kenneth Waltz<\/span>: the two powers manage rapid mutual adjustment, preventing escalation) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Unipolar \u2014 next<\/span> (No counter-coalition forms, but the preponderant power overstretches) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Multipolar \u2014 least stable<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">John Mearsheimer<\/span>: <em>unbalanced<\/em> multipolarity \u2014 a potential hegemon among small states \u2014 is the most dangerous of all). <em>Mearsheimer \u2192 polarity is the chief cause of war; balanced multipolarity is the less feared variant.<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"hegemonic-stability-and-the-relevance-of-the-polarity-thesis\">Hegemonic Stability, and the Relevance of the Polarity Thesis<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Hegemonic Stability Theory<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">George Modelski<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Robert Gilpin<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Stephen Krasner<\/span>) \u2192 a dominant hegemon with capacity <em>and<\/em> will sustains order; Krasner\u2019s hegemons \u2192 the British Empire, then the USA.<\/li>\n<li>A hegemon must hold three attributes together \u2192 capacity to enforce rules, willpower, and commitment to a mutually beneficial system. Hegemons supply <span class=\"n-term\">collective goods<\/span> and counter the <span class=\"n-term\">free-rider problem<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>Limits \u2192 it struggles to stabilise order, may generate conflict among hegemons, and cannot absorb uneven growth.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Is polarity still useful?<\/span> Questioned \u2192 America\u2019s post-Soviet unipolar rise produced no counter-coalition; <span class=\"n-sch\">Nehru<\/span>\u2019s \u201cnervous peace\u201d critique. Criticised for oversimplification (it sets aside ideology, culture, economics), unclear measurement of power, and the dynamism of the system.<\/li>\n<li>Revival \u2192 China\u2019s rise and counter-coalitions like the Quad reinforce the thesis; iterations such as the balance of terror and the nuclear balance extend it. <span class=\"n-sch\">David Hume<\/span> \u2192 so long as common sense holds, the idea stays relevant.<\/li>\n<li>Verdict \u2192 limited, but indispensable for mapping the distribution of power.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"contemporary-centres-of-power\">Contemporary Centres of Power<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Global power<\/span> \u2192 worldwide influence, hard and soft capabilities. <span class=\"n-sch\">Paul Kennedy<\/span> \u2192 a great power\u2019s strength varies historically and with the political environment. <span class=\"n-sch\">Martin Wight<\/span> \u2192 a dominant power can create, define and monopolise international conflicts.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Kenneth Waltz<\/span>\u2019s <span class=\"n-term\">five requirements of a great power<\/span> \u2192 population and territory; resource mobilisation; economic output; political stability; military strength and outreach.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Regional power<\/span> \u2192 a major share of regional GDP and trade, dominant military, political and cultural influence (India, Brazil). <span class=\"n-term\">Sub-regional power<\/span> \u2192 influence over neighbours on a smaller scale, aspiring to regional status.<\/li>\n<li>Post-Cold War emergence \u2192 decline of bipolarity, rise of globalisation, emergence of non-state actors, redistribution of power. <span class=\"n-sch\">Robert J. Guttman<\/span> \u2192 a 21st-century superpower needs economic and military strength, a strong market and technological prowess, a young educated workforce, and global vision.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Centre<\/th>\n<th>Sources of weight \u2014 and the constraint<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">China<\/span><\/td>\n<td>~1.4 billion people; the \u201cglobal factory\u201d; largest armed forces; String of Pearls; Belt and Road Initiative.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Russia<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Largest territory; ~30% of natural resources; second-largest nuclear arsenal; influence in Central Asia, Syria, Crimea.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">India<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Young workforce; fastest-growing major economy; Act East, the Asia\u2013Africa Growth Corridor, the Quad.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">BRICS<\/span><\/td>\n<td>~40% of world population; the New Development Bank; the Contingent Reserve Arrangement \u2014 strained by divergent interests and Chinese dominance.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">European Union<\/span><\/td>\n<td>27 states; an integrated market and currency; the largest humanitarian donor \u2014 constrained by Brexit and the absence of a unified military.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"security-the-security-dilemma-and-the-insecurity-dilemma\">Security \u2014 the Security Dilemma and the Insecurity Dilemma<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>The core concept of the discipline, which is often called Security Studies. <span class=\"n-sch\">Hobbes<\/span> \u2192 security of life is the fundamental value. For realists, security is <span class=\"n-term\">national security<\/span> defined by military power.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Security dilemma<\/span> \u2192 a defensive build-up by one state is read as aggressive by others, triggering retaliatory build-ups. Developed by <span class=\"n-sch\">John Herz<\/span> from the Hobbesian state of nature; <span class=\"n-sch\">Robert Jervis<\/span>\u2019s offence\u2013defence theory explains its severity. <span class=\"n-sch\">Booth<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Wheeler<\/span> \u2192 \u201cthe quintessential dilemma of international politics.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Insecurity dilemma<\/span> \u2192 <span class=\"n-sch\">Brian Job<\/span> (<em>The Insecurity Dilemma<\/em>): in the Third World, people are at risk from their own state; national security defined as <span class=\"n-term\">regime security<\/span> is pitted against ethnic, social and religious demands. <span class=\"n-sch\">Georg Sorensen<\/span> \u2192 21st-century states suffer internal threats from ethnic movements, non-state actors, failed states and civil wars.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Two dilemmas, one loop \u2014 and each feeds the other.<\/span> <span class=\"n-term\">SECURITY DILEMMA<\/span> (External \u00b7 inter-state \u2014 <span class=\"n-sch\">John Herz<\/span>: my defence is read as your threat) \u2194 <span class=\"n-term\">MUTUAL REINFORCEMENT<\/span> (Each dilemma deepens the other) \u2194 <span class=\"n-term\">INSECURITY DILEMMA<\/span> (Internal \u00b7 state vs society \u2014 <span class=\"n-sch\">Brian Job<\/span>: the regime is the threat). <em>External threats justify internal repression \u00b7 internal weakness invites external aggression \u2014 the Cold War arms race, the Arab Spring.<\/em><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Liberal response \u2192 collective security shifts the focus from national to international security; security communities and interdependence dampen the dilemma. <span class=\"n-sch\">Amitav Acharya<\/span> \u2192 the security dilemma may not fit Third World states at all.<\/li>\n<li>Overcoming it \u2192 trust-building, transparency in military activity, international institutions, strong and stable societies. Contemporary backdrop \u2192 Russia\u2013Ukraine, Israel\u2013Gaza, US\u2013China.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"theoretical-perspectives-on-security\">Theoretical Perspectives on Security<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>School<\/th>\n<th>Security is\u2026<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Realist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>National security through military power (<span class=\"n-sch\">Morgenthau<\/span>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Liberal<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Security of state <em>and<\/em> individual \u2192 functionalism (<span class=\"n-sch\">David Mitrany<\/span>), economic interdependence (<span class=\"n-sch\">Thomas Friedman<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Richard Rosecrance<\/span>), democratic peace (<span class=\"n-sch\">Michael Doyle<\/span>), institutionalism (<span class=\"n-sch\">Woodrow Wilson<\/span>); international and collective security.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Marxist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Human security <em>from<\/em> capitalism, through revolution. <span class=\"n-sch\">Immanuel Wallerstein<\/span> \u2192 \u201ceither socialism or barbarism.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Feminist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Traditional security is gendered and too narrow. <span class=\"n-sch\">Ann Tickner<\/span> \u2192 it heightens rather than reduces individual insecurity; <span class=\"n-sch\">Cynthia Enloe<\/span> \u2192 the \u201cprotection myth\u201d masks militarised sexual violence.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Constructivist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>The security dilemma and self-help are products of ideational structure. <span class=\"n-term\">Wendt<\/span> \u2192 security is what states make of it.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Critical<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Human emancipation through cosmopolitan, post-territorial moral boundaries (<span class=\"n-sch\">Andrew Linklater<\/span>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Copenhagen School<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Securitization \u2014 security as a <span class=\"n-term\">speech act<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">Barry Buzan<\/span>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p><em>The cut examiners like \u2192 instrumentalist theories (realist, liberal, Marxist) against reflectivist theories (feminist, constructivist, critical, Copenhagen).<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"human-security\">Human Security<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Shifts the referent from the state to the individual \u2192 freedom from fear, want and indignity.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Economic \u00b7 Food \u00b7 Health \u00b7 Environmental \u00b7 Personal \u00b7 Community \u00b7 Political<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">T.D. Truong<\/span> \u2192 states may be economically secure while their people face violence, patriarchy and environmental harm; the focus must move from freedom from fear to freedom from want.<\/li>\n<li>Economic security is not human security \u2192 a working woman may earn well and still face harassment; income guarantees neither dignity nor safety. Feminist critique \u2192 traditional national security is masculine-biased and creates a \u201csecurity paradox\u201d (<span class=\"n-sch\">Ann Tickner<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Barry Buzan<\/span> (<em>People, States and Fear<\/em>) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">five sectors of security<\/span> \u2014 military, political, economic, societal, environmental \u2014 interconnected, so that a threat in one affects the others.<\/li>\n<li>Illustrations \u2192 COVID-19 (health security), the Syrian refugee crisis (societal security), the Rohingya crisis (political security), climate-driven displacement.<\/li>\n<li>Realist caution \u2192 so deepened as to be nearly meaningless; states\u2019 resources are finite and the concept raises false expectations. Human security complements economic security; it does not replace it.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2016 \u00b7 20m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Why does global human security need to be emphasized along with economic security? Explain with examples.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/why-does-global-human-security-need-to-be-emphasized-along-with-upsc-psir-2016-3201\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"securitization-and-security-communities\">Securitization and Security Communities<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Securitization<\/span> (Copenhagen School) \u2192 the process by which actors transform an issue into a matter of existential security through <span class=\"n-term\">speech acts<\/span> \u2014 declaring something a security issue makes it one. Scholars \u2192 <span class=\"n-sch\">Barry Buzan<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Ole W\u00e6ver<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Jaap de Wilde<\/span>. Examples \u2192 the Arctic framed as an existential threat; migration in Europe.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Security communities<\/span> \u2192 <span class=\"n-sch\">Karl Deutsch<\/span> (1957): a region where war becomes improbable or unimaginable and problems are solved by peaceful change.<\/li>\n<li>Two kinds \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">amalgamated<\/span> (merger under one authority \u2014 the USA and its thirteen colonies) and <span class=\"n-term\">pluralistic<\/span> (sovereignty retained \u2014 USA\u2013Canada).<\/li>\n<li>Conditions \u2192 compatible core values and the capacity to respond predictably and non-violently; <span class=\"n-sch\">Carole Weaver<\/span> adds balanced multipolarity.<\/li>\n<li>Redefined after the Cold War by the constructivists <span class=\"n-sch\">Emanuel Adler<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Michael Barnett<\/span> around shared values and identities \u2192 ASEAN, MERCOSUR, the Pacific Islands Forum, SAARC. The lesson \u2192 anarchy can be transcended through shared norms.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"third-world-security-and-the-amorphous-concept-debate\">Third World Security, and the Amorphous-Concept Debate<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Mohammed Ayoob<\/span> (<em>The Third World Security Predicament<\/em>) \u2192 traditional security studies lack the tools to analyse the weak, post-colonial states of Asia, Africa and Latin America; their core problem is internal, not external.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Amitav Acharya<\/span> (\u201cThe Periphery as the Core\u201d) \u2192 the dominant understanding of security wrongly fixes on the inter-state level, excludes non-military threats and trusts the global balance of power; Cold War hegemony armed the Third World without democratic filters.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Caroline Thomas<\/span> \u2192 arbitrary colonial boundaries ignored ethnicity and geography, breeding conflict.<\/li>\n<li>Sources of insecurity \u2192 weak nationalism, weak institutions, poverty, legitimacy deficits, dependence on great powers; <span class=\"n-sch\">Homer-Dixon<\/span>\u2019s scarcity conflicts (simple-scarcity, relative-deprivation, group-identity).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Peripheral realism<\/span> \u2192 the major threat to the Third World comes from within; developed states are mere facilitators.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Has \u201cnational security\u201d been widened out of meaning?<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The concept has widened from military defence to economic instability, cyberattacks, pandemics and climate change.<\/li>\n<li>Concern \u2192 an over-broad concept becomes vague and is misused to justify surveillance, curbs on liberty and intervention \u2014 the securitization of non-military issues.<\/li>\n<li>Defence of the widening \u2192 military and non-military threats now blur; a narrow definition leaves cyber, economic and environmental vulnerabilities unaddressed. <span class=\"n-sch\">Buzan<\/span>\u2019s five sectors give a structured way to widen without dissolving the concept.<\/li>\n<li>The balance \u2192 transparency and public discourse; strong oversight; prioritisation and graduated response. Widening is necessary, but bounded \u2014 so that security enables rather than inhibits human flourishing.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-next\"><span><\/span><a class=\"r\" href=\"\/psir\/notes\/balance-of-power-and-deterrence\/\"><em>Next<\/em><b>Balance of power and deterrence<\/b><\/a><\/div>\n<p><\/main><\/p>\n<aside class=\"n-rail\">\n<h4>On this page<\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"#the-concepts-and-why-they-are-contested\">The Concepts, and Why They Are Contested<\/a><a href=\"#national-interest-meaning-nature-components\">National Interest \u2014 Meaning, Nature, Components<\/a><a href=\"#classification-thomas-w-robinson-s-six-categories\">Classification \u2014 Thomas W. Robinson\u2019s Six Categories<\/a><a href=\"#definitions-and-the-four-readings\">Definitions, and the Four Readings<\/a><a href=\"#an-essentially-contested-concept\">An Essentially Contested Concept<\/a><a href=\"#instruments-and-methods-of-promotion\">Instruments and Methods of Promotion<\/a><a href=\"#the-dynamic-nature-and-whose-interest\">The Dynamic Nature \u2014 and \u201cWhose Interest?\u201d<\/a><a href=\"#power-meaning-definitions-features\">Power \u2014 Meaning, Definitions, Features<\/a><a href=\"#elements-and-dimensions\">Elements and Dimensions<\/a><a href=\"#classification-of-states-by-power\">Classification of States by Power<\/a><a href=\"#types-of-power-hard-soft-smart-sharp-fast\">Types of Power \u2014 Hard \u00b7 Soft \u00b7 Smart \u00b7 Sharp \u00b7 Fast<\/a><a href=\"#scholarly-views-and-the-constructivist-reading\">Scholarly Views, and the Constructivist Reading<\/a><a href=\"#polarity-of-power\">Polarity of Power<\/a><a href=\"#hegemonic-stability-and-the-relevance-of-the-polarity-thesis\">Hegemonic Stability, and the Relevance of the Polarity Thesis<\/a><a href=\"#contemporary-centres-of-power\">Contemporary Centres of Power<\/a><a href=\"#security-the-security-dilemma-and-the-insecurity-dilemma\">Security \u2014 the Security Dilemma and the Insecurity Dilemma<\/a><a href=\"#theoretical-perspectives-on-security\">Theoretical Perspectives on Security<\/a><a href=\"#human-security\">Human Security<\/a><a href=\"#securitization-and-security-communities\">Securitization and Security Communities<\/a><a href=\"#third-world-security-and-the-amorphous-concept-debate\">Third World Security, and the Amorphous-Concept Debate<\/a><\/aside>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>National interest, security and power for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics \u203a National interest, security and pow<\/p>\n","protected":false},"template":"","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"fx_note_key":"II-A.6.1","fx_note_sec":"II-A","fx_note_point":"6","fx_note_desc":"National interest, security and power for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics \u203a National interest, security and pow","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-3552","psir_note","type-psir_note","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3552","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/psir_note"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3552\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3815,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3552\/revisions\/3815"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3552"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}