{"id":3574,"date":"2026-08-11T22:12:04","date_gmt":"2026-08-11T16:42:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/terrorism\/"},"modified":"2026-08-12T02:57:09","modified_gmt":"2026-08-11T21:27:09","slug":"terrorism","status":"publish","type":"psir_note","link":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/terrorism\/","title":{"rendered":"Terrorism"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"n-wrap\">\n<div class=\"n-shell\">\n<div class=\"n-crumb\"><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/\">PSIR Notes<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/#ii-a\">II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><span>Terrorism<\/span><\/div>\n<header class=\"n-head\">\n<div class=\"n-eyebrow\">Paper I \u00b7 Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"n-title\">Terrorism<\/h1>\n<div class=\"n-syl\"><b>Syllabus \u00b7 Paper II-A \u00b7 11<\/b> \u2014 Contemporary Global Concerns : Democracy, human rights, environment, gender justice <span class=\"cur\">terrorism<\/span>, nuclear proliferation.<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"n-grid\">\n  <main class=\"n-body\"><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"what-terrorism-is-the-definitional-problem\">What terrorism is \u2014 the definitional problem<\/h3>\n<p>Terrorism uses violence, or the threat of it, to induce fear and achieve political, religious or ideological ends \u2014 a psychological (fear-inducing) and physical (violent) act.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Asymmetrical warfare<\/span> \u2192 smaller groups adopt unconventional tactics against stronger states; terrorism as the <span class=\"n-term\">weapon of the weak<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>Reliance on a <span class=\"n-term\">war of attrition<\/span> \u2192 sustained attacks wear down an opponent\u2019s resources and resolve; propaganda is central, amplified by media.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Definitions diverge<\/span> \u2192 the CIA and the UN stress criminal acts intended to provoke terror for political ends across borders; India defines it under laws such as TADA (explosives\/lethal weapons to cause death or damage and destabilise governance or social harmony).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Subjectivity<\/span> \u2192 one side\u2019s patriot is another\u2019s terrorist; the difficulty is akin to the blind men and the elephant \u2014 each grasps only a part.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"evolution-of-terrorism\">Evolution of terrorism<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">From state terror to a borderless religious form.<\/span> <span class=\"n-term\">Reign of Terror<\/span> (France 1793\u201394 \u00b7 Jacobins \u00b7 Robespierre) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Communist<\/span> (Bolsheviks \u00b7 Red Brigades \u00b7 Shining Path) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Nationalist<\/span> (IRA \u00b7 PLO \u00b7 anti-colonial claims) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Religious<\/span> (Al-Qaeda \u00b7 ISIS \u00b7 transcends borders)<\/p>\n<p>The term is born of the <span class=\"n-term\">Reign of Terror (1793\u201394)<\/span> \u2014 the Jacobins under Robespierre using fear and mass executions, an early state-sponsored terror. Communist forms sought to overthrow capitalist order; nationalist forms pressed sovereignty claims; religious forms use faith to justify violence and cross borders, making them hard to combat.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"classification-types\">Classification &amp; types<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Two axes<\/span> \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">from above<\/span> (initiated or funded by governments) and <span class=\"n-term\">from below<\/span> (non-state actors acting independently of the state).<\/p>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Type<\/th>\n<th>Content &amp; examples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Ethnic<\/span><\/td>\n<td><span class=\"n-sch\">Daniel Byman<\/span> \u2192 deliberate violence by a subnational ethnic group to advance its cause (a separate state or elevation of one group) \u2014 Tamil nationalist groups in Sri Lanka; insurgencies in Nagaland and Mizoram<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Nationalist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Palestine Liberation Organisation; Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Ideological \u2014 left<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Basis in <span class=\"n-sch\">Karl Marx<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Friedrich Engels<\/span>, backed by <span class=\"n-sch\">Vladimir Lenin<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Mao Zedong<\/span>; capitalist relations seen as exploitative, revolutionary violence as essential (Maoist groups in India and Nepal, the Naxalites)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Ideological \u2014 right<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Maintains the status quo or seeks a past order, sometimes ethnic or racist (the Nazi Party); violence against migrant communities<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Religious<\/span><\/td>\n<td>The Khalistan movement in Punjab<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">State-sponsored<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Proxy warfare from the 1960s\u201370s for foreign-policy ends, under fewer constraints and with greater casualties \u2014 Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Libya, North Korea; India has faced it from Pakistan since Independence<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Narco-terrorism<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Term first used in <span class=\"n-term\">1983<\/span> by former Peruvian President <span class=\"n-sch\">Belaunde Terry<\/span> for drug-trafficker campaigns (car bombs, assassinations, kidnapping) against anti-narcotics police in Colombia and Peru<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Other forms<\/span><\/td>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Bio-terrorism<\/span> (post-9\/11 anthrax); <span class=\"n-term\">nuclear terrorism<\/span> (Al-Qaeda documents on nuclear research); <span class=\"n-term\">cyber-terrorism<\/span> (disabling defences, disrupting logistics); <span class=\"n-term\">gene-terrorism<\/span> (engineering pathogens more devastating than traditional bioweapons)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"the-changing-nature-of-terrorism\">The changing nature of terrorism<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Older groups sought specific political ends (independence, reform) and were open to negotiation (PLO, ETA); modern terrorism is driven by a sense of <span class=\"n-term\">sacred duty<\/span> \u2014 violence as part of a greater religious mission.<\/li>\n<li>Older organisations were largely secular; many of today\u2019s are rooted in religious or ideological extremism.<\/li>\n<li>Al-Qaeda was an organised institution; ISIS is a broader ideology, encouraging individuals to act without central coordination \u2192 a rise in <span class=\"n-term\">lone-wolf attacks<\/span> by those radicalised online, harder to predict and prevent.<\/li>\n<li>The concept of <span class=\"n-term\">martyrdom<\/span> has shifted \u2014 many now view themselves as heroes willing to die; groups are <span class=\"n-term\">decentralised<\/span>, running on ideology rather than hierarchy, spreading influence and recruitment worldwide.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"schools-of-thought-on-terrorism\">Schools of thought on terrorism<\/h3>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>School<\/th>\n<th>Reading of terrorism<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Copenhagen<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Security is not an objective fact but a concept shaped by language and political discourse (<span class=\"n-term\">securitisation<\/span>); how governments describe terrorism, often overstating groups\u2019 power, justifies military action or surveillance<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Critical<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Rejects tying terrorism to religion or culture; looks to political and economic conditions. <span class=\"n-sch\">Noam Chomsky<\/span> \u2192 Middle East terrorism largely a product of US foreign policy; the US a \u201cterrorist state,\u201d distinguishing <span class=\"n-term\">wholesale terrorism<\/span> (US military\/foreign-policy harm) from <span class=\"n-term\">retail terrorism<\/span> (smaller groups). <span class=\"n-sch\">Richard Falk<\/span> \u2192 terror is used by state and non-state actors alike<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Realist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Hard power \u2014 military action, intelligence, strict enforcement. <span class=\"n-sch\">Thomas Hobbes<\/span> \u2192 a strong central authority to keep order; <span class=\"n-sch\">Hans Morgenthau<\/span> \u2192 the primacy of state security<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Liberal<\/span><\/td>\n<td><span class=\"n-sch\">John Locke<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Immanuel Kant<\/span> \u2192 the dilemma between security and freedom; rights-violating measures can deepen radicalisation; favour cooperation and tackling poverty, inequality and repression<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Social constructivist<\/span><\/td>\n<td>State-centric intelligence and surveillance, but also the <span class=\"n-term\">hearts and minds<\/span> approach (social\/economic roots) and the <span class=\"n-term\">political bargain<\/span> (dialogue over force)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"terrorism-globalisation\">Terrorism &amp; globalisation<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-sch\">James Kiras<\/span> \u2192 global terrorism concentrates on three areas tied to globalisation.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Culture<\/span> \u2192 violence to defend traditions against a \u201ccultural tsunami\u201d of Western products and materialism; <span class=\"n-sch\">Samuel Huntington<\/span> \u2192 a fault line between liberal Western civilisation and an Islamic one resentful of Western dominance.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Economics<\/span> \u2192 the World Trade Center attacks of 1993 and 2001 struck an icon of global capitalism, not just US policy; <span class=\"n-sch\">Immanuel Wallerstein<\/span>\u2019s world-systems theory \u2192 globalisation perpetuates Western imperialism, disrupting the Global South and pushing marginalised youth toward groups like ISIS.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Technologies<\/span> \u2192 better proselytising, coordination and mobility; ISIS\u2019s use of Twitter and Telegram; Boko Haram drawing on poverty and neglect in Nigeria.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-sch\">Anthony Giddens<\/span> \u2192 globalisation is not only Western dominance; it affects the US as much as others (11 September 2001). Terrorism is <span class=\"n-term\">not solely<\/span> a product of globalisation \u2192 the IRA and the Mau Mau arose from local grievances, and Al-Qaeda traces to Cold War support for Islamist groups in the Soviet\u2013Afghan war. <span class=\"n-sch\">Maha Azzam<\/span> \u2192 \u2018Islamist\/Jihadist terrorism\u2019 is best read as a violent response to political conditions in a politico-religious idiom, going global as elements realigned against the \u201cfar enemy,\u201d the West.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"strategies-to-deal-with-terrorism\">Strategies to deal with terrorism<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">War of attrition<\/span> \u2192 consistent, gradual pressure to weaken organisations over time, avoiding direct confrontation.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">War of manoeuvre<\/span> \u2192 adaptability, intelligence and disruption \u2014 cutting off resources and winning local support.<\/li>\n<li>Excessive force is counter-productive \u2192 authoritarian tactics erode trust and alienate populations, feeding further violence.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"global-response-conventions\">Global response &amp; conventions<\/h3>\n<p>The response evolved in phases \u2014 early instruments (1960s\u2013early 1990s) secured aviation and shipping; later phases addressed bombings, terror financing and nuclear terrorism.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">1963 Convention on Offences on Board Aircraft<\/span> \u2192 the first international treaty against terrorism; five more sectoral conventions in the 1970s.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">FATF<\/span> \u2192 global standards against terror financing, with grey-listing for heightened monitoring; the SCO\u2019s <span class=\"n-term\">RATS<\/span> for regional counter-terrorism in Central Asia.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">CCIT<\/span> \u2192 proposed by India to criminalise all forms of terrorism and deny terrorists, financiers and supporters access to funds, arms and safe havens.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">UN Security Council<\/span> \u2192 Resolution 1267 (asset freezes on designated terrorists, with China at times resisting cases such as Hafiz Saeed), 1373 (counter-terrorism measures), 1624 (criminalising incitement).<\/li>\n<li>Sectoral conventions \u2192 1997 Terrorist Bombings, 1999 Financing of Terrorism, 2005 Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. The US\u2019s post-9\/11 Global War on Terrorism dismantled organisations but brought instability and the rise of ISIS.<\/li>\n<li>The world still lacks a comprehensive convention \u2192 BRICS reject \u201cdouble standards\u201d and press to finalise the CCIT; India holds that classifying terrorists as \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cbad\u201d for convenience must end.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2022 \u00b7 15m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Discuss the efficacy of global conventions to combat international terrorism.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/discuss-the-efficacy-of-global-conventions-to-combat-upsc-psir-2022-3806\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Build the answer on<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>1963 Aircraft Convention as the first treaty; five more sectoral conventions in the 1970s; post-9\/11 conventions on bombings, financing and nuclear terrorism \u2014 a widening scope.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">FATF<\/span> (grey-listing) and the SCO\u2019s RATS as financial and regional instruments; UNSC 1267, 1373, 1624 for asset freezes, measures and incitement.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">The gaps<\/span> \u2192 the stalled CCIT (no agreed definition \u2014 one state\u2019s terrorist is another\u2019s freedom fighter); China\u2019s resistance (Hafiz Saeed) as selective application and \u201cdouble standards.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>A persisting scourge \u2192 terrorism has engulfed regions as large as nations (Afghanistan, Syria), questioning efficacy.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Way forward<\/span> \u2192 finalise the CCIT, end the \u201cgood\/bad terrorist\u201d distinction, and pair enforcement with the rule of law (<span class=\"n-sch\">Kofi Annan<\/span>).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"india-s-plan-kofi-annan-s-5-d-s\">India\u2019s plan &amp; Kofi Annan\u2019s 5 D\u2019s<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">India\u2019s five-point plan<\/span> at the UN \u2192 intelligence sharing; preventing abuse of communication platforms for propaganda and recruitment; stronger border security; movement control over suspected terrorists; accountability of states that harbour terrorists. In January 2021, at the twentieth anniversary of Resolution 1373, India added an <span class=\"n-term\">eight-point action plan<\/span> \u2014 summoning political will, decrying double standards, objective enlisting and delisting under UN sanctions, and addressing the terrorism\u2013organised-crime link.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Kofi Annan\u2019s five-point strategy \u2014 the 5 D\u2019s:<\/span> Dissuade \u2014 address root causes \u00b7 Deny means \u2014 funds, arms, tech \u00b7 Deter states \u2014 pressure sponsors \u00b7 Develop capacity \u2014 legal &amp; security \u00b7 Defend human rights<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"terrorism-the-restriction-of-human-rights\">Terrorism &amp; the restriction of human rights<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Thomas Hobbes<\/span> (<em>Leviathan<\/em>) \u2192 life without a strong authority is chaotic, so in a crisis the state may limit freedoms to ensure safety; surveillance can be justified because the protection of life is paramount.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">John Locke<\/span> (<em>Second Treatise of Government<\/em>) \u2192 government exists to safeguard life, liberty and property; any action infringing these rights must be limited and carefully controlled.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Jurgen Habermas<\/span> \u2192 governments must still respect democratic values, since excessive restrictions on rights corrode the moral foundations of a society.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"technology-the-changing-face-of-terrorism\">Technology &amp; the changing face of terrorism<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Bruce Hoffman<\/span> \u2192 terrorism continuously adapts to the political, social and technological setting; the internet has transformed radicalisation, recruitment and coordination.<\/li>\n<li>Social media \u2192 Twitter, Telegram and YouTube exploited by ISIS and Al-Qaeda (the ISIS magazine <em>Dabiq<\/em>); encrypted apps (Telegram, Signal, WhatsApp) evade surveillance (2015 Paris attacks); AI-generated content and deepfakes worsen disinformation.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Richard Danzig<\/span> \u2192 technologies such as <span class=\"n-term\">CRISPR<\/span> may let non-state actors create pandemic-like biological threats.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Audrey Kurth Cronin<\/span> (<em>Power to the People<\/em>, 2019) \u2192 \u201cthe future of terrorism will be shaped by the democratisation of technology,\u201d making adaptive counter-terrorism indispensable. <span class=\"n-sch\">Brahma Chellaney<\/span> \u2192 concerted information campaigns can help discredit radical ideologies in West and Central Asia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p>\u201cIt\u2019s like an ancient story \u2014 you can\u2019t keep snakes in your backyard and expect them only to bite your neighbours. Eventually those snakes are going to turn on whoever has them in the backyard too.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><cite>Hillary Clinton<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<h3 id=\"terrorism-assessment\">Terrorism \u2014 assessment<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Andrew Heywood<\/span> \u2192 terrorism is an <span class=\"n-term\">essentially contested concept<\/span>, marked by normative disagreement over its definition, legitimacy and implications for civil liberties and state power.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Noam Chomsky<\/span> \u2192 the line between state and non-state terror stays blurred, so its conceptual foundations need critical analysis.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Richard Falk<\/span> \u2192 the legitimacy of counter-terrorism depends on upholding global justice and due process and avoiding state-sponsored excesses, lest the values of civilisation be eroded in the effort to protect them.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p>\u201cTerrorism is a global scourge that requires a global response.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><cite>Kofi Annan<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<div class=\"n-next\"><a href=\"\/psir\/notes\/gender-justice\/\"><em>Previous<\/em><b>Gender justice<\/b><\/a><a class=\"r\" href=\"\/psir\/notes\/nuclear-proliferation\/\"><em>Next<\/em><b>Nuclear proliferation<\/b><\/a><\/div>\n<p><\/main><\/p>\n<aside class=\"n-rail\">\n<h4>On this page<\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"#what-terrorism-is-the-definitional-problem\">What terrorism is \u2014 the definitional problem<\/a><a href=\"#evolution-of-terrorism\">Evolution of terrorism<\/a><a href=\"#classification-types\">Classification &amp; types<\/a><a href=\"#the-changing-nature-of-terrorism\">The changing nature of terrorism<\/a><a href=\"#schools-of-thought-on-terrorism\">Schools of thought on terrorism<\/a><a href=\"#terrorism-globalisation\">Terrorism &amp; globalisation<\/a><a href=\"#strategies-to-deal-with-terrorism\">Strategies to deal with terrorism<\/a><a href=\"#global-response-conventions\">Global response &amp; conventions<\/a><a href=\"#india-s-plan-kofi-annan-s-5-d-s\">India\u2019s plan &amp; Kofi Annan\u2019s 5 D\u2019s<\/a><a href=\"#terrorism-the-restriction-of-human-rights\">Terrorism &amp; the restriction of human rights<\/a><a href=\"#technology-the-changing-face-of-terrorism\">Technology &amp; the changing face of terrorism<\/a><a href=\"#terrorism-assessment\">Terrorism \u2014 assessment<\/a><\/aside>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Terrorism for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics \u203a Terrorism Paper I \u00b7 Comparative Political Analysis and Internat<\/p>\n","protected":false},"template":"","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"fx_note_key":"II-A.11.5","fx_note_sec":"II-A","fx_note_point":"11","fx_note_desc":"Terrorism for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-A Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics \u203a Terrorism Paper I \u00b7 Comparative Political Analysis and Internat","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-3574","psir_note","type-psir_note","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3574","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/psir_note"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3574\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3807,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3574\/revisions\/3807"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3574"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}