{"id":3576,"date":"2026-08-11T22:12:05","date_gmt":"2026-08-11T16:42:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/determinants-of-foreign-policy\/"},"modified":"2026-08-12T02:57:07","modified_gmt":"2026-08-11T21:27:07","slug":"determinants-of-foreign-policy","status":"publish","type":"psir_note","link":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/notes\/determinants-of-foreign-policy\/","title":{"rendered":"Determinants of foreign policy"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"n-wrap\">\n<div class=\"n-shell\">\n<div class=\"n-crumb\"><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/\">PSIR Notes<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><a href=\"\/psir\/psir-notes\/#ii-b\">II-B India and the World<\/a><span class=\"sep\">\u203a<\/span><span>Determinants of foreign policy<\/span><\/div>\n<header class=\"n-head\">\n<div class=\"n-eyebrow\">Paper I \u00b7 India and the World<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"n-title\">Determinants of foreign policy<\/h1>\n<div class=\"n-syl\"><b>Syllabus \u00b7 Paper II-B \u00b7 1<\/b> \u2014 Indian Foreign Policy : <span class=\"cur\">Determinants of foreign policy<\/span>; the institutions of policy-making; Continuity and change.<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"n-grid\">\n  <main class=\"n-body\"><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"foreign-policy-meaning-objectives-and-where-it-comes-from\">Foreign Policy \u2014 meaning, objectives, and where it comes from<\/h3>\n<p>Foreign policy does not emerge from a vacuum. It is a settled course of action, and a set of principles, through which a state defines its relations with others.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"n-lab\">Working definition<\/span> \u2014 Foreign policy is the course of action and set of principles a government adopts to define its relations with other states, and to set forth its positions on international issues.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>It may reflect broad national objectives, or a narrow, specific response to one situation \u2014 a combination of <span class=\"n-term\">principles, interests and objectives<\/span> through which a country conducts its external relations.<\/li>\n<li>In general it aims to fulfil the <span class=\"n-term\">national interest<\/span>. <span class=\"n-sch\">Hans Morgenthau<\/span>: its primary object is the protection and enhancement of national interest, rooted in power.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Objectives<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Sovereignty &amp; integrity \u00b7 Economic development \u00b7 Political stability \u00b7 National interest \u00b7 Influencing international relations<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Sovereignty and integrity<\/span> \u2192 territorial integrity and the security of the people; manifests as security concerns, military build-up and alliances.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Economic development<\/span> \u2192 trade agreements, investment, access to resources. Economic might is the lifeblood of scientific, military and soft-power endeavours.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Political stability<\/span> \u2192 within the country and abroad \u2014 supporting stable governments, mediating conflicts, promoting rights.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Influencing international relations<\/span> \u2192 shaping the world order and the behaviour of others; part of soft-power projection.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Who and what shapes it<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Harsh V. Pant<\/span> \u2192 a nation\u2019s foreign policy flows from several sources: the international system, its domestic political imperatives, the cultural factors underlying its society, and the personal characteristics and perceptions of individual decision-makers.<\/li>\n<li>Some factors are <span class=\"n-term\">permanent \/ static<\/span> (geography, natural frontiers); the domestic and external environments <span class=\"n-term\">change with time<\/span>. Permanent factors impart <span class=\"n-term\">continuity<\/span>, dynamic factors cause <span class=\"n-term\">change<\/span>. Policy is seldom static, yet certain factors remain significant over long periods.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">David Malone<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">C. Raja Mohan<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Srinath Raghavan<\/span> \u2192 foreign policy is shaped, powered and constrained by four factors \u2014 <span class=\"n-term\">history, geography, capability and leadership<\/span>; identity runs through all of them.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Teresita Schaffer<\/span> \u2192 the Indian identity of a peaceful, non-violent country is reflected in No First Use, Panchsheel, and exceptionalism in global negotiations.<\/li>\n<li>The relative weight of these factors keeps shifting with <span class=\"n-term\">time, place and personality<\/span>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Geography \u00b7 History \u00b7 Culture \u00b7 Social structure \u00b7 Economy \u00b7 Leadership \u00b7 Domestic milieu \u00b7 Defence &amp; security \u00b7 International situation<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Permanent factors carry continuity \u00b7 dynamic factors carry change.<\/span> <span class=\"n-term\">PERMANENT<\/span> (Geography \u00b7 History \u00b7 Culture \u00b7 Social structure) \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">FOREIGN POLICY<\/span> (principles + interests + objectives, in pursuit of national interest) \u2190 <span class=\"n-term\">DYNAMIC<\/span> (Economy \u00b7 Leadership \u00b7 Domestic milieu \u00b7 Defence &amp; security \u00b7 International situation). <em>Relative weight of each factor shifts with time, place and personality.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The four-factor frame, applied to India<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">History<\/span> \u2192 the claim of an ancient civilisation, and a lasting suspicion of the West; anti-colonial ethos feeding non-alignment and support for self-determination.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Geography<\/span> \u2192 insecurity along the borders; the Himalayas and the Indian Ocean shaping strategy; the largest littoral state of the Indian Ocean.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Capability \/ economy<\/span> \u2192 the contradiction of an emerging economy advanced in nuclear and space science, yet dependent on energy and defence imports.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Leadership<\/span> \u2192 Nehru\u2019s idealism, Indira Gandhi\u2019s realism, Vajpayee\u2019s projection of scientific prowess, Modi\u2019s fast-paced diplomacy.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Domestic milieu<\/span> \u2192 coalition politics and the centre\u2013state dynamic (Teesta, CHOGM 2013). <span class=\"n-term\">Social structure and culture<\/span> \u2192 shared ethnicity in the neighbourhood; soft power through Yoga, Bollywood and the classical arts.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2016 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Which determinant factors play an important role in making India\u2019s foreign policy? Illustrate with examples.<\/span><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"geography-as-a-determinant\">Geography as a Determinant<\/h3>\n<p>Foreign policy experts hold geography to be one of the most important, permanent and stable factors. Its constituents \u2192 topography, soil, fertility, climate, mineral resources, frontiers, neighbours \u2014 and above all, <span class=\"n-term\">location<\/span>.<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p>\u201cAny country\u2019s foreign policy is determined by its geography.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><cite>Napoleon Bonaparte<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<ul>\n<li>Geopolitical scholars \u2014 <span class=\"n-sch\">Spykman<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Mackinder<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Alfred T. Mahan<\/span> \u2014 stressed geography, especially location. The <span class=\"n-term\">Mackinder\u2013Mahan debate<\/span> frames the role of location.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Alfred T. Mahan<\/span> \u2192 naval power and location build great powers (Britain); he identified <span class=\"n-term\">strategic choke points<\/span> whose control commands the sea \u2014 Suez, Malacca, the Persian Gulf.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Mackinder<\/span> \u2192 whoever controls the <span class=\"n-term\">\u201cheartland\u201d<\/span> controls the world.<\/li>\n<li>England\u2019s location, surrounded by water, gave it strategic advantage; Afghanistan\u2019s location made it the centre of the \u2018Great Game\u2019. The English Channel built British naval and imperial power; 19th-century US <span class=\"n-term\">isolationism<\/span> rested on favourable geography.<\/li>\n<li>Landlocked states, tropical states and those bordering a superpower are less self-sufficient than those with warm-water ports or temperate location.<\/li>\n<li>Geography\u2019s importance has <span class=\"n-term\">declined<\/span> with technology and communication \u2014 large water bodies are no longer absolute barriers \u2014 but it still shapes foreign policy deeply.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Daron Acemoglu<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">James Robinson<\/span> \u2192 geography is not a permanent, unchanging factor, nor is technology the key to dominance; it is not even a good predictor of wealth or power. South Asia is the least economically integrated region in the world \u2014 not because of geography or technology, but owing to many other factors.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Geography and Indian foreign policy<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Ambassador <span class=\"n-sch\">Rajiv Sikri<\/span> \u2192 both \u201cIndia\u201d and \u201cHindustan\u201d have a geographical origin \u2014 named after the people beyond the River <span class=\"n-term\">Indus (Sindhu)<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>Blessed with abundant resources, India was a self-contained, self-satisfied, rich civilisation with nothing to gain from foreign forays \u2192 a <span class=\"n-term\">defensive mindset<\/span>; it did not craft a strategy to tackle foreign threats.<\/li>\n<li>Hence <span class=\"n-sch\">George Tanham<\/span> argues India lacks a <span class=\"n-term\">\u2018strategic culture\u2019<\/span> or a <span class=\"n-term\">\u2018grand strategy\u2019<\/span> like the US or China. Tanham linked geography and strategy, but was largely repeating the criticisms of Indian isolationism and exceptionalism described by <span class=\"n-sch\">K.M. Panikkar<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>Long coastline and the <span class=\"n-term\">Indian Ocean<\/span> \u2192 a strategic edge to naval power; the busiest sea lane of communication; the shift of the global theatre to the <span class=\"n-term\">Indo-Pacific<\/span>; India can become a <span class=\"n-term\">\u201cnet security provider\u201d<\/span> with a blue-water navy.<\/li>\n<li>Land boundaries with Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar \u2192 frosty relations with China and Pakistan shape regional policy (SAARC, BIMSTEC, Neighbourhood First).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p>\u201cOne can change one\u2019s friends, but not neighbours.\u201d \u00b7 \u201cWe can change our history but not our geography.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><cite>Atal Bihari Vajpayee<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<ul>\n<li>India connects South Asia with West, Central, South-East and East Asia \u2192 opportunities for trade, and security challenges from terrorism and instability.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">K. Subrahmanyam<\/span> \u2192 a <span class=\"n-term\">strategic equalizer<\/span> can be achieved through advanced technologies \u2014 which the West has denied India \u2014 against those who claim that power and national security rest essentially on geographic factors.<\/li>\n<li>Duqm Port (Oman) and Sabang Port (Indonesia) secured in 2018; US naval presence at Diego Garcia; India and France in Djibouti \u2014 the contest for choke points.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">K.M. Panikkar<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Shivshankar Menon<\/span> \u2192 geography compels engagement with neighbours, management of border conflicts, and a strong naval presence. Proximity to Pakistan and China drives use of <span class=\"n-sch\">Kautilya<\/span>\u2019s <span class=\"n-term\">Mandala<\/span> logic \u2014 strategic convergence with Afghanistan, outreach to counter China.<\/li>\n<li>Peninsular projection and control of the Indian Ocean \u2192 maritime security, Act East, and the aspiration of net security provider. The National Movement and geography together balance idealism with pragmatic regional considerations.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2017 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Examine the Indian National Movement and geographical location of India as determinants of India\u2019s foreign policy.<\/span><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"history-as-a-determinant-panchsheel\">History as a Determinant \u00b7 Panchsheel<\/h3>\n<p>History has a prominent impact because officials rely, consciously or unconsciously, on their understanding of the past to address the present. Used properly, historical knowledge helps understand other peoples, gives perspective, and grants access to the wisdom of predecessors. Policy cannot be made on history alone, but it would be foolish to ignore what history offers.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">David Malone<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">C. Raja Mohan<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Srinath Raghavan<\/span> \u2192 history explains a good deal of Indian foreign policy \u2014 not only in the post-independence period, but even today. India\u2019s location at Asia\u2019s crossroads and its peninsular projection made it a natural transit point of trade.<\/li>\n<li>India <span class=\"n-term\">never mounted aggressive campaigns<\/span> for territorial expansion, even after being targeted by repeated invasions \u2192 a <span class=\"n-term\">pacifist outlook<\/span> expressed through the <span class=\"n-term\">Panchsheel<\/span> principles.<\/li>\n<li>Bitter experience with imperialism and colonialism bred lasting suspicion of <em>Western hegemony<\/em> (now led by the United States), and predisposed <span class=\"n-sch\">Nehru<\/span> towards <span class=\"n-term\">import-substituting industrialisation<\/span> in a public-sector-dominated mixed economy.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Panchsheel \u2014 the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence<\/span><\/p>\n<p>First formally enunciated in the Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between the Tibet region of China and India, signed on <span class=\"n-term\">29 April 1954<\/span> (Jawaharlal Nehru and Zhou Enlai).<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Mutual respect for each other\u2019s territorial integrity and sovereignty<\/li>\n<li>Mutual non-aggression<\/li>\n<li>Mutual non-interference in each other\u2019s internal affairs<\/li>\n<li>Equality and mutual benefit<\/li>\n<li>Peaceful co-existence<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">History and Indian foreign policy<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The legacy of an ancient civilisation \u2192 <em>Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam<\/em> (the whole world is one family), drawn from the scriptures and from figures like <span class=\"n-sch\">Swami Vivekananda<\/span>. The values that shaped policy: tolerance, non-violence, universal brotherhood.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p>Pacifism is \u201cthe deliberate acceptance of a method of approach to foreign policy problems which emphasised reconciliation, and the temper of peace, as opposed to a spirit of revenge and hatred.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><cite>A. Appadorai<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<ul>\n<li>British rule had a <span class=\"n-term\">two-fold impact<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">A. Appadorai<\/span>): the national freedom movement led to support for the freedom of colonial peoples \u2014 championing <span class=\"n-term\">de-colonisation<\/span> in Africa and a strong stance against apartheid; and the British practice of racial inequality committed India to rooting out racial discrimination.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Socialist and communist strands<\/span> within the national movement helped India appreciate ideologies beyond liberalism \u2192 cooperation with liberal democracies without opposing the socialist countries.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Non-alignment<\/span> flows from the ideals of the freedom struggle, with philosophical foundations in the <span class=\"n-term\">Buddhist<\/span> <em>Madhyam Marg<\/em> (Golden Mean). Freedom-struggle ideals also produced the co-founding of NAM, solidarity with the Afro-Asian world, and continued support for a two-state solution on Palestine.<\/li>\n<li>India inherited <span class=\"n-term\">treaties, agreements and boundaries<\/span> and treated them as sacrosanct \u2014 both India and Pakistan accepted the obligations of <span class=\"n-term\">627 treaties<\/span> signed by the British.<\/li>\n<li>India also inherited the foreign policy establishment and British notions of neighbourhood relations. The neighbours\u2019 perception that India plays the <span class=\"n-term\">role of big brother<\/span> in South Asia is a British legacy too.<\/li>\n<li>The baggage of legacy persists \u2192 some border tensions with Pakistan and China are British legacies; geography, ethnicity and economic viability were ignored in drawing the boundaries.<\/li>\n<li>Ancient scholars like <span class=\"n-sch\">Kautilya<\/span> left a realist legacy \u2014 <em>raja mandala siddhant, shad-gunya siddhant<\/em> \u2014 still guiding India\u2019s protection of national interest. Nehru used force to expel the Portuguese from Goa (1961); <span class=\"n-sch\">Indira Gandhi<\/span>\u2019s realism was visible in the creation of Bangladesh (1971).<\/li>\n<li>Even today India seeks <span class=\"n-term\">strategic autonomy<\/span> over alliance with any major power.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"culture-as-a-determinant\">Culture as a Determinant<\/h3>\n<p>Culture is a relatively new entrant in foreign policy debates. Realists \u2014 <span class=\"n-sch\">Hans Morgenthau<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Kenneth Waltz<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">John Mearsheimer<\/span> \u2014 accorded it little importance. It gained prominence only after the <span class=\"n-term\">Gramscian<\/span> focus on hegemony and <span class=\"n-sch\">Joseph Nye<\/span>\u2019s emphasis on <span class=\"n-term\">soft power<\/span>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Culture has a subtle but powerful impact on how states and leaders behave \u2192 it provides ways of thinking, seeing and interpreting the world; cross-cultural settings such as foreign policy-making carry the potential for clashes.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">strategic culture<\/span> of a country bears the imprint of its civilisational values \u2014 India\u2019s pacifism owes to a civilisational legacy of not being an invader, and a spiritual orientation towards non-violence in Jainism and Buddhism.<\/li>\n<li>A state with a unified culture and shared history can pursue an effective foreign policy through consensus; cultural and historical cleavages weaken it.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Culture and Indian foreign policy<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam<\/em> \u2192 tolerance, non-violence, universal brotherhood. <span class=\"n-sch\">A. Appadorai<\/span> \u2192 pacifism and non-violence come from an emphasis on reconciliation and peace over revenge and hatred.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Pluralism and tolerance<\/span> \u2192 a preference for sovereignty and caution in condemning the internal actions of other states \u2014 scepticism over condemning Russia\u2019s actions in Crimea, a calibrated stance on Syria and Yemen; occasional intervention to secure the diaspora.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<blockquote class=\"n-quote\">\n<p>\u201cSome of the characteristics and practices of Hindu civilization have a very noticeable influence on Indian attitudes and policies today. Among these are a kind of otherworldly attitude towards life and emphasis on non-material factors, and a \u2018spirit of tolerance, detachment and meditation and compromise which perhaps is best exemplified in Buddhism.\u2019\u201d<\/p>\n<p><cite>N.D. Palmer<\/cite><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<ul>\n<li>Ideals of <span class=\"n-term\">liberty, equality, democracy and socialism<\/span> entered nationalist leaders through Western education and the Soviet experiment.<\/li>\n<li>India\u2019s <span class=\"n-term\">spiritualistic view of politics and power<\/span> in <span class=\"n-sch\">Gandhi<\/span>, <span class=\"n-sch\">Aurobindo<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Tagore<\/span> \u2192 world peace, peaceful means, keeping aloof from power-politics and military alliances; internationalism.<\/li>\n<li>Culture as a <span class=\"n-em\">tool<\/span> of foreign policy (soft power) \u2192 PM Modi\u2019s success in having the UN mark an <span class=\"n-term\">International Day of Yoga<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>Caution \u2192 culture as a means must not become chauvinism and hatred, as under the Pan-German concept that culminated in the World Wars.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Philosophical foundations \u2014 the settled list<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Moored in civilisational beliefs of peace, tolerance and <span class=\"n-term\">One World<\/span> (<em>Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam<\/em>); guiding principles \u2192 Panchsheel, pragmatism, and the pursuit of national interest.<\/li>\n<li>Inspiration from <span class=\"n-sch\">Gandhi<\/span>\u2019s non-violence, moral behaviour and Satyagraha, and from the teachings of the Buddha and the Vedic tradition.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Non-alignment<\/span> \u2192 maintaining independence by not joining any military bloc; philosophical roots in the Buddhist <em>Madhyam Marg<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Anti-colonialism and anti-racism<\/span> \u2192 support for Indonesia, opposition to apartheid, backing China\u2019s inclusion in the UN.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Peaceful settlement of disputes<\/span> \u2192 enshrined in the Directive Principles; reflected in India\u2019s stand on the Ukraine war.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Foreign economic aid and a just world order<\/span> \u2192 decolonisation, UN peacekeeping, disaster relief (Nepal, Turkey), vaccine support during the pandemic.<\/li>\n<li>Later expressions \u2192 the NAM doctrine, the Gujral Doctrine, Neighbourhood First, No First Use, South\u2013South cooperation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Peaceful co-existence as the cornerstone \u2014 and the counter-view<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The primary task of foreign policy \u2192 the country\u2019s security, territorial integrity, and a peaceful external environment. At its heart lies <em>Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam<\/em>, guided by the values of Buddhism and Gandhian non-violence.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Panchsheel<\/span> (Sino-Indian Agreement, 1954) \u2192 the Five Principles later became the basis for non-alignment and gave concrete expression to the UN Charter.<\/li>\n<li>Even amid persistent aggression from China in the Himalayas and the Indian Ocean, India has sought amicable resolution. With Pakistan, India has consistently used UN platforms and democratic means to highlight cross-border terrorism.<\/li>\n<li>Independent and rational stands despite pressure \u2014 the <span class=\"n-term\">Ukraine crisis<\/span> \u2014 reflect peaceful co-existence with strategic autonomy; a constructive role in bringing rival blocs and countries together, and global good during the pandemic.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Critical view<\/span> \u2192 peaceful co-existence now coexists with a firmer, more risk-taking posture, showing continuity of principle alongside pragmatic adaptation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2021 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Explain the philosophical foundations of India\u2019s foreign policy.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2022 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Peaceful co-existence remains the cornerstone of India\u2019s foreign policy. Comment.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/peaceful-co-existence-remains-the-cornerstone-of-indias-foreign-upsc-psir-2022-3906\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"social-structure-as-a-determinant\">Social Structure as a Determinant<\/h3>\n<p>Social structure characterises the nature of social relations among sections of society and the degree of conflict and harmony between them. It influences foreign policy indirectly, and changes in it change policy over the long term.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A state with racial, religious, linguistic, class or ethnic cleavages struggles to secure cooperation from all sections. A <span class=\"n-term\">homogeneous society<\/span> produces a more coherent, even aggressive, foreign policy \u2014 Britain stood as one under <span class=\"n-sch\">Churchill<\/span> in the Second World War because of social solidarity.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Nehru<\/span> \u2192 the foreign policy of a nation is an extension of domestic policy. Civilisational values imbibed in society guide the objectives and the means \u2014 non-alignment, Panchsheel, and the rise of soft power.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Shared ethnicity \u2014 distrust rather than strength<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">Tamil factor<\/span> \u2192 rough patches with Sri Lanka; it even prevented the PM\u2019s CHOGM visit.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">Madhesi factor<\/span> \u2192 distrust and anti-India feeling in Nepal; impact on constitution-making.<\/li>\n<li>India\u2019s <span class=\"n-term\">Palestine policy<\/span> \u2192 shaped by the sentiments of minorities. <span class=\"n-sch\">Talmiz Ahmad<\/span> counters that domestic determinants should not be exaggerated \u2014 it was <span class=\"n-term\">energy, rather than ethnicity<\/span>, that shaped India\u2019s West Asia policy.<\/li>\n<li>The Muslim connection with West Asia; a large migrant population in the Gulf (the Kerala\u2013Gulf link); the Sikh and Punjabi community in Canada \u2014 India\u2013Canada relations embroiled in pro-Khalistan protests.<\/li>\n<li>Social structure is not the only determinant \u2014 world order, the structure of international politics, and the legitimacy enjoyed by the political elite also matter. India\u2019s young demography pushes a focus on trade, investment and employment.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"economy-as-a-determinant\">Economy as a Determinant<\/h3>\n<p>As per <span class=\"n-sch\">Sanjay Baru<\/span>, economic performance and capability are a necessary \u2014 though by no means sufficient \u2014 foundation of political, diplomatic and military power. The implosion of the Soviet Union under economic failure, and the rise of China on rapid growth, both bear this out.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A <span class=\"n-term\">weak economy<\/span> leads to dependency and loss of sovereignty; a <span class=\"n-term\">strong economy<\/span> gives a strategic edge and soft power (China\u2019s <em>chequebook diplomacy<\/em>). India and others run <span class=\"n-term\">ODA<\/span> programmes to build soft power.<\/li>\n<li>Industrially advanced countries show <span class=\"n-term\">complex interdependence<\/span> (<span class=\"n-sch\">Robert Keohane<\/span> and <span class=\"n-sch\">Joseph Nye<\/span>) through high trade value; big pockets (US, China) fund external aid, military ventures and diplomacy.<\/li>\n<li>Economically developed countries possess greater military capability and exert greater influence. China\u2019s ascendancy is challenging US hegemony \u2192 talk of <span class=\"n-term\">Cold War 2.0<\/span> and the <span class=\"n-term\">Thucydides Trap<\/span>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The Indian economy and foreign policy<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Sanjay Baru<\/span> \u2192 from its inception, Indian foreign policy was shaped by two potentially contradictory imperatives: addressing India\u2019s developmental needs, and the urge to inspire anti-colonial struggles and play a leadership role in the developing world.<\/li>\n<li>As a poor, agrarian society desperate to industrialise, India needed good ties with capital-surplus industrial economies \u2192 the architects combined the \u2018idealism\u2019 of a post-colonial republic with the \u2018realism\u2019 a backward economy\u2019s developmental needs demanded.<\/li>\n<li>Post-independence India adopted a <span class=\"n-term\">mixed economy<\/span>; heavy dependence on oil brought focus on <span class=\"n-term\">West Asia<\/span>; economic conditions pushed advocacy for easing disparities at the WTO and World Bank, and <span class=\"n-term\">South\u2013South cooperation<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Economic compulsions<\/span> \u2192 India\u2013China bilateral trade reached an all-time high of about <span class=\"n-term\">US$125 billion in 2021\u201322<\/span> despite border tensions and frosty relations.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The neoliberal outlook \u2014 how far has it gone?<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Neoliberal foreign policy \u2192 states minimise regulation and facilitate seamless trade; through <span class=\"n-term\">complex interdependence<\/span> (Keohane and Nye), peace is sustained.<\/li>\n<li>Indian foreign policy began with Nehruvian idealism and economic isolation; the <span class=\"n-term\">1991 LPG reforms<\/span> forced the private sector to look for markets abroad (<span class=\"n-sch\">Andres Velasco<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>Neoliberal markers \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">Look East (1993)<\/span>, India\u2013Africa Summits, mending ties with the US, use of the WTO for services, FTAs, and the creation of the <span class=\"n-term\">NDB<\/span> and <span class=\"n-term\">AIIB<\/span>. Deeper trade architecture \u2192 DTAAs, transfer-pricing agreements, Act East and Connect Central Asia.<\/li>\n<li>Continuities that qualify the shift \u2192 South\u2013South cooperation, and egalitarian positions at the WTO, the UN and climate forums.<\/li>\n<li>The realist streak persists \u2192 surgical strikes, Doklam, Galwan; caution over <span class=\"n-term\">RCEP<\/span> and <span class=\"n-term\">BRI<\/span>; multi-alignment and strategic autonomy.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Kanti Bajpai<\/span> \u2192 despite realism and idealism, the neoliberal position predominates in India\u2019s pragmatic foreign policy.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Verdict<\/span> \u2192 the neoliberal outlook is increasingly visible but is not the single decisive factor; India cannot be a prisoner to one stream of thought.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2018 \u00b7 10m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Do you agree with the view that Indian Foreign Policy is increasingly being shaped by the Neoliberal outlook? Elaborate.<\/span><a class=\"n-pyq-a\" href=\"\/psir\/psir-pyq\/do-you-agree-with-the-view-that-the-indian-foreign-policy-is-upsc-psir-2013-3901\/\">Answer<\/a><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"leadership-as-a-determinant\">Leadership as a Determinant<\/h3>\n<p>Structural realism neglects the personality factor, but it was soon recognised that <span class=\"n-term\">actors<\/span> significantly influence how foreign policy is conducted \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">neoclassical realism<\/span> brought actor-level analysis back in.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Thucydides<\/span> in the <em>Peloponnesian War<\/em> contrasted the cautious, pragmatic <span class=\"n-sch\">Pericles<\/span> with the reckless adventurer <span class=\"n-sch\">Alcibiades<\/span>, who abandoned Pericles\u2019s plan and led Athens to ruin.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Machiavelli<\/span> (<em>The Prince<\/em>), <span class=\"n-sch\">Sun Tzu<\/span> (<em>The Art of War<\/em>) and <span class=\"n-sch\">Kautilya<\/span> (<em>Arthashastra<\/em>) all show how individual action secures the success of the state.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">James Rosenau<\/span> \u2192 personality, or <em>idiosyncratic factors<\/em>, has a deep influence on the planning and execution of foreign policy.<\/li>\n<li>Leadership is constrained by governmental and social structure; its role is more significant in less industrialised nations. <span class=\"n-sch\">Laura Neack<\/span> \u2192 a political leader is motivated by two goals: to retain political power, and to build and maintain policy coalitions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The Indian experience<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Jawaharlal Nehru<\/span> \u2192 internationalist in outlook, an enlightened rather than self-centred approach; commitment to world peace and disarmament, with Panchsheel as its typical expression.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Indira Gandhi<\/span> \u2192 strong and decisive, pragmatic and sensitive to national interest \u2192 a reorientation towards <span class=\"n-term\">realism<\/span> (Bangladesh, non-accession to the NPT, ties with the USSR).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Atal Bihari Vajpayee<\/span> \u2192 the reputed qualities of a moderate shaped engagement with Pakistan and the United States.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"domestic-milieu-as-a-determinant\">Domestic Milieu as a Determinant<\/h3>\n<p>The domestic milieu \u2014 the nature of the governing system, political culture, party policies, public opinion, tradition, and the structure of government and leadership \u2014 is an important determinant.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The most important factor in decision-making is the <span class=\"n-term\">political environment<\/span> in which the head of government operates; the political system fixes the head\u2019s scope and power.<\/li>\n<li>The nature of <span class=\"n-term\">legislature\u2013executive relations<\/span> bears heavily on foreign policy \u2014 harmony is a source of strength, discord a hindrance; the party system, elections and the electorate also matter.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">organisation and structure of government<\/span> shapes policy \u2014 in a centralised, authoritarian system, foreign policy often remains isolated from the domestic environment.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Devesh Kapur<\/span> \u2192 public opinion is the least understood factor: largely acquiescent (latent) or implicitly supportive, but it can be \u2018primed\u2019 and strategically manipulated. The information revolution has raised its importance.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Domestic milieu in India<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A syncretic culture of \u2018unity in diversity\u2019; a <span class=\"n-term\">parliamentary democracy<\/span> giving representation to divergent groups; foreign policy a prerogative of the executive, yet Parliament influences it on occasion.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">National consensus<\/span> cuts across parties \u2192 non-alignment as a core principle for all.<\/li>\n<li>Differences persist \u2192 Parliament was vocal on the China boundary and the Goa question in the late 1950s, and pressed the government to deplore the American action against Iraq in 2003.<\/li>\n<li>Parties, national and regional, take positions in their manifestos \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">DMK, AIADMK, MDMK<\/span> (Sri Lanka), the <span class=\"n-term\">National Conference<\/span> (Pakistan).<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">Civil Nuclear Deal of 2008<\/span> \u2192 anti-US Left Front parties threatened to withdraw support.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">Public Diplomacy Division<\/span> was created within the MEA in 2006 to shape public opinion.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"defence-and-security-as-a-determinant\">Defence and Security as a Determinant<\/h3>\n<p>Since the <span class=\"n-term\">Treaty of Westphalia (1648)<\/span>, sovereignty has been central to international politics. The sanctity of territorial borders is the most respected principle \u2192 nations build preponderant military capability. <span class=\"n-sch\">Hans Morgenthau<\/span> treats security as a <span class=\"n-term\">core and permanent national interest<\/span>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A <span class=\"n-term\">credible military capability<\/span> acts as a <span class=\"n-term\">deterrent<\/span> \u2192 nuclear weapons, alliances, <span class=\"n-term\">collective defence<\/span> (NATO), intelligence networks and counterterrorism cooperation.<\/li>\n<li>Questions of defence and security form part of a country\u2019s <span class=\"n-term\">strategic culture<\/span>. <span class=\"n-sch\">Harsh V. Pant<\/span> \u2192 cultural elements of the domestic environment shape national security interests and policies.<\/li>\n<li>The incessant acquisition of power can create a <span class=\"n-term\">\u2018security dilemma\u2019<\/span> and an arms race, reducing security.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Security and Indian foreign policy<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Both external military threats and internal challenges are core concerns; the weight of security in Indian foreign policy has varied with individual, domestic and systemic factors.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Harsh V. Pant<\/span> \u2192 India\u2019s behaviour has confounded observers by deviating from the \u2018norm\u2019 set by other major powers; Indian foreign and security policy has been deemed <span class=\"n-term\">incoherent and inconsistent<\/span>; Indian elites treat <span class=\"n-term\">\u2018strategic autonomy\u2019<\/span> as central, with non-alignment as an instrument towards it.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">George K. Tanham \u2014 the six policies India evolved for its strategic dilemmas<\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Prevent small neighbours from soliciting hostile external support.<\/li>\n<li>Deny Pakistan the potential to challenge Indian predominance on the sub-continent.<\/li>\n<li>Develop resources to fight a two-front war and achieve \u201cpower equivalence\u201d with China.<\/li>\n<li>Close relations with the Soviet Union to counter China and Pakistan.<\/li>\n<li>Naval capabilities to deny any extra-regional power a meaningful presence in the Indian Ocean.<\/li>\n<li>Approach world-power status through nuclear and missile capabilities and a blue-water navy, while seeking recognition as a great nation rather than a superpower.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ul>\n<li>Tanham wrote in <span class=\"n-term\">1992<\/span>; <span class=\"n-sch\">Harsh V. Pant<\/span> holds that not much has changed in strategic thinking, and that India needs clearer strategic thought.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">concept of security has changed<\/span> \u2192 with a focus on <span class=\"n-term\">human security<\/span>, newer dimensions have entered: climate, food, energy, counterterrorism and the global commons.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Kanti Bajpai<\/span> \u2192 India\u2019s national security strategy must include the global commons; its priorities should be (i) the safety of the planet, (ii) arresting climate change and preventing epidemics, (iii) stabilising the global economy, and (iv) global political stability, non-proliferation, the demilitarisation of outer space and freedom of the high seas.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Internal security<\/span> \u2192 cooperation with the US, Israel, Japan, France, and institutions like the UN and INTERPOL.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">The historical trajectory of security<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Nehru\u2019s ideational foreign policy gave little consideration to the security dimension \u2192 Tanham\u2019s charge of a missing strategic culture.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Sumit Ganguly<\/span> \u2192 the commitment to non-alignment limited high defence expenditure; India\u2019s policymakers ignored systemic constraints and chose an explicitly ideational policy with mostly disastrous consequences, leaving India unprepared for the <span class=\"n-term\">1962 war<\/span> with China.<\/li>\n<li>Pakistan allied with the USA in <span class=\"n-term\">1954<\/span> to balance India \u2192 India\u2019s tilt towards the Soviet Union.<\/li>\n<li>After 1962 \u2192 a realistic turn; under <span class=\"n-sch\">Indira Gandhi<\/span>, a strategic partnership with the USSR, and close ties with Britain and France.<\/li>\n<li>The 1990s \u2192 weakened ties with newly formed Russia; India began looking East and West; matured relations with Israel.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Nuclear weapons policy<\/span> \u2192 1974 (peaceful) and 1998 tests with sanctions; by 2008, the Civil Nuclear Deal and the NSG waiver; India is reconsidering <span class=\"n-term\">No First Use<\/span> in response to Pakistan\u2019s tactical nuclear arsenal.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Net security provider<\/span> \u2192 the Quad, a blue-water navy, BIMSTEC, Project Mausam, IORA; the pivot to the US (LEMOA, the 2015 US\u2013India Joint Strategic Vision), while pursuing strategic autonomy and <span class=\"n-term\">multi-alignment<\/span> (the S-400 deal despite US unease).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">Pakistan after Pathankot \u2014 the shift<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Stephen P. Cohen<\/span> \u2192 the India\u2013Pakistan conflict is a <span class=\"n-term\">\u201cpaired minority conflict\u201d<\/span> \u2014 each side views itself as threatened and vulnerable, which drives their respective postures.<\/li>\n<li>Since the January 2016 attack on the Pathankot air base, India has held that <span class=\"n-term\">talks and terror cannot go together<\/span>, asking for credible action against terror groups.<\/li>\n<li>Post-Pathankot \u2192 <span class=\"n-term\">surgical strikes<\/span> after Uri; <span class=\"n-term\">pre-emptive non-military strikes at Balakot<\/span> after Pulwama \u2192 a shift from a principle-based to a more transactional trajectory.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-sch\">Harsh V. Pant<\/span> \u2192 India has shattered the myth of Pakistani nuclear capability and opened the possibility of a limited conventional war, putting the onus of escalation back on Pakistan.<\/li>\n<li>Beyond military measures \u2192 the <span class=\"n-term\">International Court of Justice<\/span> and the <span class=\"n-term\">Financial Action Task Force<\/span> used to build pressure.<\/li>\n<li>PM Modi has infused Indian foreign policy with a measure of <span class=\"n-term\">risk-taking<\/span>, unlike the risk aversion of the past. Foreign policies rarely alter radically with a change of government, but the assumptions that had governed India\u2019s engagements have been fundamentally challenged.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Critical view<\/span> \u2192 <span class=\"n-sch\">Neelam Deo<\/span> argues the hawkish stance towards Pakistan is yet to show any enduring gain.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2016 \u00b7 15m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">Discuss the shift of India\u2019s foreign policy towards Pakistan in the light of the Pathankot incident.<\/span><\/div>\n<h3 id=\"international-situation-as-a-determinant\">International Situation as a Determinant<\/h3>\n<p>The broad currents of international politics have a direct bearing on foreign policy. The <span class=\"n-term\">nature of the power structure<\/span> in the international system influences every state\u2019s policy; the difficulty is that states cannot control the behaviour of others.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Inter-war years (1919\u201339) \u2192 the quest for French security, and the rise of fascism, Nazism and militarism.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">Cold War<\/span> (1945\u201390) \u2192 a <span class=\"n-term\">bipolar order<\/span> with ideological confrontation; the <span class=\"n-term\">domino effect<\/span> and <span class=\"n-term\">containment<\/span> (the Truman Doctrine, NATO, SEATO).<\/li>\n<li>End of the Cold War and the disintegration of the Soviet Union \u2192 a <span class=\"n-term\">unipolar<\/span> order; socialism receded.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Complex interdependence<\/span> under globalisation, MNCs and IGOs; rising sensitivity to terrorism, human rights and self-determination.<\/li>\n<li>The 21st century \u2192 a shift towards a <span class=\"n-term\">multipolar order<\/span> with many regional hegemons (China, India, Russia, South Africa, Brazil).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">India and the international environment<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Non-alignment<\/span> \u2192 a direct response to Cold War polarisation.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">Nuclear disarmament<\/span> \u2192 arising from the threat to human civilisation; the tests of <span class=\"n-term\">1974 (Smiling Buddha)<\/span> and <span class=\"n-term\">1998<\/span> answered an international order that dismissed disarmament and sanctified an inequitable nuclear hierarchy.<\/li>\n<li>The Soviet disintegration \u2192 less enthusiasm for NAM, accommodation of American concerns, full ties with Israel, and an economic emphasis in relations.<\/li>\n<li>Post-Cold War \u2192 terrorism and human rights forced adjustments; J&amp;K-related allegations caused difficulty in global forums.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"n-term\">9\/11<\/span> \u2192 an opportunity to push India\u2019s anti-terror policy and pressure Pakistan. <span class=\"n-term\">Covid-19<\/span> \u2192 vaccine diplomacy as soft power.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class=\"n-term\">Russia\u2013Ukraine war<\/span> \u2192 policymakers walking a tightrope, balancing the US (an emerging strategic partner) and Russia (a reliable partner).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"n-term\">External determinants of any state\u2019s foreign policy<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Foreign policy is not shaped in isolation: it results from interaction with, and reaction to, a multitude of external factors \u2014 the <span class=\"n-term\">system level of analysis<\/span>, where the international system is the cause and state behaviour the effect.<\/p>\n<div class=\"n-tw\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>External determinant<\/th>\n<th>How it works<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Power structure<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Multipolar, bipolar and unipolar systems each have their own dynamics; the \u2018either with us or against us\u2019 unipolar logic drew marginal states into the Global War on Terrorism.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">International organisations<\/span><\/td>\n<td>The UN and others modify state behaviour and act as independent actors; pressures of the NPT, CTBT and WTO decisions bear on every foreign policy.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Reaction of other states<\/span><\/td>\n<td>No state can act unilaterally \u2014 India and the US must reckon with Pakistani interests in Afghanistan.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">World public opinion<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Soft power constrains: the US was made to change its Vietnam policy under hostile world opinion.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Alliances and treaties<\/span><\/td>\n<td>The post-1945 alliance systems, used by both the US and the USSR, shaped every nation\u2019s policy.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Location, MNCs, liberation movements<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Who one\u2019s neighbours are; corporations as instruments of influence; movements (Hamas, Fatah, the PLO) attracting external sympathy and aid.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Economic interests and global challenges<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Trade agreements (India\u2013Australia ECTA), the \u2018soft containment\u2019 of China, and responses to climate change, pandemics and terrorism.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span class=\"n-term\">Technology<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Advances in communication and information technology influence diplomacy, intelligence and warfare.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"n-pyq\"><span class=\"n-pyq-chip\">UPSC 2023 \u00b7 20m<\/span><span class=\"n-pyq-q\">What are the external determinants of the Foreign Policy of a State?<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"n-next\"><span><\/span><a class=\"r\" href=\"\/psir\/notes\/institutions-of-policy-making\/\"><em>Next<\/em><b>Institutions of policy-making<\/b><\/a><\/div>\n<p><\/main><\/p>\n<aside class=\"n-rail\">\n<h4>On this page<\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"#foreign-policy-meaning-objectives-and-where-it-comes-from\">Foreign Policy \u2014 meaning, objectives, and where it comes from<\/a><a href=\"#geography-as-a-determinant\">Geography as a Determinant<\/a><a href=\"#history-as-a-determinant-panchsheel\">History as a Determinant \u00b7 Panchsheel<\/a><a href=\"#culture-as-a-determinant\">Culture as a Determinant<\/a><a href=\"#social-structure-as-a-determinant\">Social Structure as a Determinant<\/a><a href=\"#economy-as-a-determinant\">Economy as a Determinant<\/a><a href=\"#leadership-as-a-determinant\">Leadership as a Determinant<\/a><a href=\"#domestic-milieu-as-a-determinant\">Domestic Milieu as a Determinant<\/a><a href=\"#defence-and-security-as-a-determinant\">Defence and Security as a Determinant<\/a><a href=\"#international-situation-as-a-determinant\">International Situation as a Determinant<\/a><\/aside>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Determinants of foreign policy for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-B India and the World \u203a Determinants of foreign policy Paper I \u00b7 India and the World Determinants of for<\/p>\n","protected":false},"template":"","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"fx_note_key":"II-B.1.1","fx_note_sec":"II-B","fx_note_point":"1","fx_note_desc":"Determinants of foreign policy for the UPSC PSIR optional \u2014 PSIR Notes \u203a II-B India and the World \u203a Determinants of foreign policy Paper I \u00b7 India and the World Determinants of for","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-3576","psir_note","type-psir_note","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3576","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/psir_note"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3576\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3805,"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/psir_note\/3576\/revisions\/3805"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/forumias.com\/psir\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3576"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}