Route 1 security once state-centred / military → non-traditional turn → welfare threatened by non-military, transnational sources (Caballero-Anthony) → food + environment as the clearest cases

Route 2 the widening of “security” beyond the state → food and environmental crises named as non-traditional threats → both erode livelihoods and stability

non-traditional security defined (Caballero-Anthony) → food crisis: reduced supply, rising staple prices, hunger (Timmer) → scale: ~258m / 58 countries / 2022; ~9m hunger deaths a year (WFP) → unequal burden: women, children, poor households, small producers → environment amplifies: climate extremes cut farm labour productivity (up to 14% in low-income tropics) → Homer-Dixon: supply / demand / structural scarcity → resource capture + ecological marginalisation → state capacity weakened → insurgency, communal violence → responses: equity-centred adaptation, rights-based access, flexible transboundary governance

food and environmental stress as a “development” concern vs a genuine “security” threat → Homer-Dixon’s scarcity–conflict link settles it on the security side

Route 1 these are security threats precisely because they hit livelihoods, weaken states and breed conflict

Route 2 the durable answer is equity-centred, rights-based and transboundary — not military