Ancient and Medieval history Quiz or MCQs for UPSC Civil Services

Lower Palaeolithic tools are found in most parts of India, except in a few regions of the Ganges valley, southern Tamil Nadu and in the hilly areas of the Western Ghats.
Athirampakkam, Pallavaram and Gudiyam near Chennai, Hunsgi valley and Isampur in Karnataka, and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are some important Palaeolithic sites where the Acheulian tools are found.

The Neolithic period marked the beginning of agriculture and animal domestication.

It is an important phase in Indian history.
• Early evidence of Neolithic culture is found in the Fertile Crescent region of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges valley of India and also in China.
• Between 10,000 BCE to 5000 BCE, agriculture emerged in these regions, which led to several cultural developments.

Archaeologists have found numerous seals of different shapes and sizes all across the excavation sites.
• While most seals are square, it was found that triangular, rectangular and circular seals were also used.
• Steatite, a soft stone found in the river beds, was although the most common material used to make seals, yet agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta seals have also been found.
• Some instances of copper, gold and ivory seals have also been found.
• Most seals have inscriptions in a pictographic script that is yet to be deciphered.
• The script was written mostly from right to left, but, bi-directional writing style i.e right to left on one line and left to right on another line has also been found.

Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira, Lothal, and Surkotada (Gujarat, India), Kalibangan and Banawali (Rajasthan, India), and Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India) are the major cities in the Harappan period.
• Fortification, wellplanned streets and lanes and drainages are noticed in the Harappan towns.
• A civic authority perhaps controlled the planning of the towns.
• The Harappans used baked and unbaked bricks, and stones for construction.
• The towns had a grid pattern and drainages were systematically built.
• The houses were built of mud bricks while the drainages were built with burnt bricks. Houses had more than one floor.

The burial system followed by the people of Neolithic period continued into the Megalithic period.
• A circular tomb using big stone slabs built upon the place of burials known as a megalith. Such megaliths have been found in many parts of Tamil Nadu.
• The urn burial system was another type of practice and is evidenced in Adichanallur (present Thoothukudi district).
• Black-ware is peculiar to burial sites in Tamil Nadu.
• Interestingly, black-ware is found mostly in burial mounds and not in human habitations. In a majority of urn burials, the use of stone is almost non-existent.
• However, urn burials are grouped under megalithic because the materials – the pottery, iron objects, beads of semi-precious stones kept in them – are identical to those found in the stone burials.

The Indus Civilisation.
• The Indus Civilization represents the earliest manifestation of urban development in the plains of the Indus valley and its extension along the Arabian sea-coast.
• The four principal settlements so far excavated provide the material to reconstruct the cultural content of the civilization.
• Two lie in Pakistan: Harappa, usually identified with Hariyupiya of the Rigveda, is situated on an old bed (sukbrawa) of the river Ravi in Sahiwal District of Punjab, and Mohenjo-daro (literally ‘mound of the dead’) is on the right bank of the Indus river in Larkana District of Sind.
• The other two sites are in western India; Lothal is situated on the Sabarmati river at the head of the gulf of Cambay on the west coast of India, and Kalibangan (literally ‘black bangles’) lies some 310 km north-west of Delhi along the left bank of the now-dry Ghaggar (old Sarasvati) river in northern Rajasthan.

Pottery development in Harappan Civilization.
Statement 1 is correct: The potteries found at the excavation sites can be broadly classified into two kinds – plain pottery and painted pottery. The painted pottery is also known as Red and Black pottery as it used red colour to paint the background and glossy black paint was used to draw designs and figures on the red background. Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical patterns were the recurring themes of the paintings.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Most of the potteries that have been found are very fine wheel-made wares, with a very few being handmade. Some examples of polychrome pottery have also been found, though very rare.

The inferences about Harappan Economy have been derived from its
flourishing trade relations with its contemporary Mesopotamian and Persian civilisations•Seals hold a special significance in the Harappan context. Every merchant
probably had a seal bearing an emblem, often of a religions character and a
name / brief description on one side.
•The standard Harappa seal was a square / oblong plaque made of steatite stone.
Though its primary purpose is inferred to mark the ownership of property,
they may also have served as amulets.
•They carried out internal and external trade. There was no metallic money in
circulation and trade was conducted by means of barter.
•Inland transport primarily employed bullock carts. Harappans seals have been
found in Mesopotamian cities like Susa and Ur.
•In Nippur, a seal has been found bearing Harappan script and a unicorn. Recently,
some ancient sites in the Persian Gulf like Failaka and Bahrain have also yielded
Harappan seals.

First discovery of rock paintings in the world was made in India (1867-68) by
an Archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle, and twelve years before the discovery of Altamira in
Spain (site of oldest rock paintings in the world).
•In India, remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls of caves situated
in several districts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Karnataka, Bihar, and Uttarakhand.
•Some of the examples of sites early rock paintings are Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand,
Kupgallu in Telangana, Piklihal and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka, Bhimbetka and
Jogimara in Madhya Pradesh etc.

The art of bronze-casting was practised on a wide scale by the Harappans.
Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique in which the wax figures
were first covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry.
•Then the wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out through a tiny hole
made in the clay cover.
•The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original
shape of the object. Once the metal cooled, the clay cover was completely removed.
•In bronze we find human as well as animal figures, the best example of the former
being the statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’.
•Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and
sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit.
•Bronze casting was popular at all the major centres of the Indus Valley
Civilisation.
•The copper dog and bird of Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan
are in no way inferior to the human figures of copper and bronze from Harappa and
Mohenjodaro.
•Metal-casting appears to be a continuous tradition.

Past human cultures used various raw materials found from the natural
context, for example, shell species of Turbinella pyrum from the Gulf of Kachchh,
agate-carnelian from Khandak near the Harappan site of Surkotada and other locations in
Gujarat, lapis lazuli from the Badakshan mines of Afghanistan, high quality steatite
from northern Rajasthan, and turquoise from Central Asia.

The Indus Civilisation and the contemporary cultures covered nearly 1.5 million sq. km area in India and Pakistan. The settlements of Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan– Iran border; Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north; Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation. Its core area was in the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 11.

Meralbhavi in Karnataka, Kurnool caves and Godavarikhani in Telangana, Baghor I and Baghor III of Son Valley in Madhya Pradesh and Patne in Maharashtra are some of the Upper Palaeolithic sites of India.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 5.

The period before the development of script is called the pre-historic times. It is also referred to as the Stone Age. Archaeological sources form the bedrock of information to understand span of time in Indian history. They include archaeological sites, geological sediments, animal bones and fossils, stone tools, bone tools, rock paintings and artefacts. There is no written evidence for this period. Although the Harappans used a script, it is yet to be deciphered.
Floral evidence found in the form of charred seeds, pollens and phytoliths (plant stones) helps us to gain knowledge of farming practiced by Stone Age people.
The human genes also constitute an important source for understanding prehistoric migrations. The mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) studies provide information on pre-historic migrations. Scientists are trying to extract ancient DNA from the bones of the pre-historic era to understand human dispersals.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 1.

One of the sources of Harappan economy was trade and exchange activities. Harappans had close trade contacts with the Mesopotamians and also with various cultures of India. The Harappan seals and materials have been found in the Sumerian sites in Oman, Bahrain, and Iraq and Iran. The cuneiform inscriptions mention the trade contacts between Mesopotamia and Harappans. The mention of “Meluhha” in the cuneiform inscriptions refers to the Indus region.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 14.

Neolithic culture in Kashmir region was contemporary to the Harappan civilisation. Burzahom, an important site of this culture, provides evidence for the Megalithic and Early Historic Periods. In this place, people lived in pit houses (about four metres in depth) in order to escape the cold weather.
The first Palaeolithic tools were identified at the site of Pallavaram near Chennai by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863. He found many prehistoric sites when he extensively surveyed different parts of South India. Since then, numerous Palaeolithic sites have been identified and excavated all over India.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 2 and 9.

Craft production was an important part of the Harappan economy. Bead and ornament making, shell bangle making and metalworking were the major crafts. They made beads and ornaments out of carnelian, jasper, crystal, and steatite, metals like copper, bronze and gold and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay. The beads were made in innumerable designs and decorations. They were exported to Mesopotamia and the evidence for such exported artefacts have been found from the excavations in Mesopotamian sites.
Certain Harappan sites specialized in the production of certain craft materials. The following table presents the major centres of craft production.
MaterialSite or Source
ShellNageshwar and Balakot
Lapis lazuliShortughai
CarnelianLothal
SteatiteSouth Rajasthan
CopperRajasthan and Oman

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 13.

Pastoralism was also practised by the Harappans. They domesticated sheep, goat and fowl. They had knowledge of various other animals including buffalo, pig and elephant. But horse was not known to them. The Harappan cattle are called Zebu. It is a large breed, often represented in their seals. They also ate fish and birds. Evidence of boar, deer and gharial has been found at the Harappan sites.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 13.

The map below shows the location of major harappan sites with respective rivers.

Source: Themes in Indian History-1 page 2

Unlike Africa, evidence of hominin [immediate ancestor of Homo Sapiens] fossil is rare in India. There is a report of a fossil fragment discovered by Robert Bruce Foote from Athirampakkam. Its whereabouts are not known now. The only well-known hominin fossil of India was found at Hathnora near Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh. The cranium is named Narmada human. A partly preserved hominid skull cap was found in a basal conglomerate deposit in 1982. It is considered to represent the Archaic Homo sapiens. It is the only existing fossil find of human ancestors in India.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 3.

In north-eastern India, Neolithic culture appears at to a very late period. The Neolithic cultures of north-eastern India generally date from 2500-1500 BCE or even later. Shouldered axes and splayed celts have been found at the sites in Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. Daojali Hading and Sarutaru are the Neolithic sites in the Assam region. This region bears evidence for shifting cultivation. Cultivation of yams and taro, building stone and wooden memorials for the dead, and the presence of Austro-Asiatic languages are the marked features of this region, which shows cultural similarities with South-east Asia.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 11.

Both statements are correct.

The Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley post

1920s wherein the ruins of the two old cities; Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed.

The ruins of buildings and other things like household articles, weapons of war, gold and

silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery wares, etc., show that some four to five thousand

years ago a highly developed Civilization flourished in this region.

The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the people lived in wellplanned

and well-built towns, which were also the centers for trade. They had wide roads

and a well-developed drainage system. The houses were made of baked bricks and had two

or more storeys.

The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat and barley

constituted their staple food. Evidences also show that they wore cotton as well as woollen

garments.

By 1500 BC, the Harappan culture came to an end. Among various causes ascribed to the

decay of Indus Valley Civilization are the recurrent floods and other natural causes like

earthquake, etc.

# The year 2020 marks 100 years of discovery of Indus Valley Civilisation, and a new study

has shown that dairy products were being produced by the Harappans as far back as 2500

BCE.

Ropar is located in Punjab, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Dholavira and Kuntasi

both located in Gujarat.

The word ‘Veda’ signifies knowledge and the texts are actually about providing humans about knowledge to conduct their entire life on earth and beyond.
• It is written in highly stylised poetic style and the language is full of symbols and myths.
• The Vedas were initially handed down orally by generations of Brahmin families but it is estimated by historians that they were compiled around 1500 BC-1000 BC.

The Arayankas are also texts attached to the Vedas and they describe the rituals and sacrifices involved in the Vedas from various perspectives.
• They are said to be compilations of ritualistic information on the birth and death cycles as well as the complexity of the soul.
• It is argued that holy and learned men, called Munis, who preferred to dwell within the limits of the forests, taught them.

All knowledge comes under two kinds, the higher, Para, and the lower, Apara, says the Mundaka Upanishad, quoting the words of knowers of Brahman.
• Any meaningful discussion on an issue is possible only when the pros and cons are studied from all angles in a dispassionate manner.
• For instance, knowing about adharma and dharma and their influence on beings is necessary for it can shape one’s choices in life.
• A wise person would do well to avoid adharma. Dharma, if understood properly, can become the governing principle in one’s daily life.
• Apara Vidya or the lower knowledge is not false or wrong; in fact all the four Vedas wherein everything pertaining to phonetics, grammar, rituals, etymology, astrology, metrics, etc, is thoroughly explained, come under this category.
• Apara Vidya is the means by which one can aim for the four Purusharthas, including the glitter of worldly goals such as name, fame, wealth, etc as well as attainment of the heavens and other lokas.

The Vedas (Vid = to know, Vidya) are one of the earliest known texts to have been composed in India.
• The language of the Vedas is described as Vedic Sanskrit.
• The main collections of Vedic hymns are called samhitas. The Rig Vedic samhita is the earliest text.
• Each samhita has added texts called brahmanas, which have commentaries on the hymns and rituals.
• Each brahmana has an aranyaka (forest text) and an upanishad.

The literal meaning of Upanishad is to sit near someone. There are 108
Upanishads, of which 13 are the most prominent. The Upanishads dwell on the Atman and
Brahman, and focus a lot on the philosophy about life, universe, self, body, sacrifice, etc.
They emphasise that the knowledge of the self or atman should be acquired and that the
relation of the atman with the Brahman should be properly understood.
•Chhandogya Upanishad: First three ashramas (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya,
Vanaprastha).
•Brahadarankya Upanishad: Samsara (transmigration of soul).
•Jabala Upanishad: Four ashrams (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha,
Sannyas).

The main collections of Vedic hymns are called samhitas. The Rig Vedicsamhita is the earliest text. The Rig Veda is dated to between 1500 and 1000 BCE. The Rig Veda contains 10 books.
Samhitas are ritualistic texts, and they explain the social and religious importance of rituals. Each samhita has added texts called brahmanas, which have commentaries on the hymns and rituals.
Each brahmana has an aranyaka (forest text) and an upanishad. The aranyakas contain mystical ritual instructions to be undertaken in secret by the sages who live in the forests. Upanishads deal with philosophical enquiries.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 23.

The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks about the lands and gods of the people speaking the Indo-Iranian languages. It has references to the regions of northern and north-western parts of India. It has terms which show linguistic similarity with the Vedas. This text is indirect evidence that the early home of the Aryans was outside the Indian subcontinent.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 23.

Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware culture is found in northern India dating to the Chalcolithic period.
The OCP pottery has red slip and appears ochre in colour (the ochre colour comes off when the pottery is touched) and hence, it is called Ochre Coloured Pottery.
It has black painted designs. The OCP comes in the form of jars, storage jars, bowls, and basins.
The OCP culture dates to 2600- 1200 BCE and is found in the Indo- Gangetic plain and may have had some associations with early Vedic culture.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 24.

The burial system followed by the people of Neolithic period continued into the Megalithic period. A circular tomb using big stone slabs built upon the place of burial is known as a megalith. Such megaliths have been found in many parts of Tamilnadu.
The urn burial system was another type of practice and is evidenced in Adichanallur (present Thoothukudi district). Black-ware is peculiar to burial sites in Tamilnadu.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 25.

Cattle rearing was an important economic activity for the Aryans, although they practiced agriculture. Cattle were considered wealth.
The term for war in the Rig Veda was gavishthi which means search for cows (which is the contemporary term (goshti) for factions as well).
The donations to the priests were mainly cows and women slaves but not land, which reveals the importance of pastoralism. There was no private property in land.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 31.

The polity of the Rig Vedic period was that of a tribal society. The chief of the tribe was the main political head and he was called rajan.
The purohita or priest offered advice to the king. Vedic priests advised the kings, inspired them and praised their deeds. In turn they received rewards for their services.
Senani was the chief of army.
There is no evidence of tax collecting officers. Perhaps people made voluntary contribution called bali to the king. Some scholars say that bali was an imposed tax, and not voluntary.
There is no reference to the administration of justice.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 31,32.

In later Vedic phase, striking changes took place in the Varna System. There was an increase in the privileges of the two higher classes, the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas at the cost of the Vaisyas and Sudras.
In the Panchavimsa Brahmana, the Kshatriya is placed first, higher than the Brahmana but in the Satapatha Brahmana, the Brahmana is placed higher than Kshatriya.
In later Vedic society the importance of the purohita (priest) is stressed, as mentioned in the Vedic texts. The Kshatriyas challenged Brahmanical supremacy and their exclusive privilege of entering the asramas, a regulated four-stage life namely brahmacharya, grihasta, vanaprastha and sanyasa. The outcome of this was the birth of Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivakam.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 35,36.

During Early Vedic period, women had a respectable position but it is not possible to generalise about this. Society was essentially patriarchal with a preference for male children and cattle.
The birth of a son was preferred perhaps because of the martial nature of the society, which required male members for their clashes to establish dominance over the territories. Having ten sons was considered as a blessing.
Women attended assemblies and offered sacrifices. Marriage was common but primitive practices were also continued.
Polyandry seems to have existed, and widow remarriage was also known. People married at the age of 16–17, according to scholars, and there is little evidence of child marriage.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 30.

The Rig Vedas speak about not only the Aryans, but also about the non-Aryan people, whom the Aryans encountered in India. When the Rig Vedic people moved into India they came into conflict with people whom they referred to as Dasyus or Dasas.
Evidently the Aryans differentiated themselves from the dark native people who had different cultural practices, and sought to maintain their distinction.
The Rig Veda has references to several other groups. Simyu and Kikata are grouped with the dasyus. Sambara son of Kulitara is mentioned as a chief with 90 forts or settlements.
Varchin was another chief with many troops. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of a chief called Sambara by Divodasa of the Bharata clan.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 29.

Archaeological evidence points to the development of agriculture among the Rig Vedic people. The ploughshare is mentioned in the Rig Vedas.
The field was known as kshetra and the term krishi referred to ploughing. The terms langla and sura referred to plough and the term sita meant the furrow created by ploughing.
Water for irrigation was probably drawn from wells by cattledriven water-lifts using pulleys.
They had knowledge of different seasons, sowing, harvesting and thrashing. They cultivated barley (yavam) and wheat (godhuma).
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 31.

Jainism is a very ancient world religion with a history of over 3000 years, which originated in the Indian subcontinent, like Hinduism and Buddhism.

 Although it has some similarities with both traditions, Jainism is different from them with its own unique and distinguishing features.

 It is also older than Buddhism and is truly one of the most ancient and living religions of the world, besides Hinduism and Judaism.

 Jaina Dharma, as it is known popularly, is a truly ascetic religion which places heavy emphasis upon ethical conduct, personal purity for the liberation of the individual Souls. Jainism does not believe in a Creator God.

 It accepts the material universe as a self-existing system. Everything in it, including the individual Soul, is an aspect of matter.

 Each Soul is eternal but it has states, shapes and sizes. In the bound state (bandha) it is subject to karma and rebirth. It attains liberation only when it is able to completely get rid of karma.

 Jainism was founded by 24 Perfect Beings, known as Tirthankaras, who appeared upon earth in the past and laid the foundation for its doctrine.

 Mahavira was the last and the most popular of the Tirthankaras. Since it is a difficult and austere religion, from the earliest times, Jainism enjoyed popularity only among certain sections of Indian society, especially merchant communities.

 It is a predominantly Indian religion, with some following abroad. In this section we included information on the history, beliefs, practices, philosophy, and ethics of Jainism, and comparison with other faiths.

In course of time, Sthaviravadins, Mahasanghikas and Sarvastivadins emerged as major sects of Buddhism.

 New ideas emerged among the Sarvastivadins and Mahasanghikas. It led to the emergence of Mahayana and Hinayana (the Great and Lesser Vehicles) in Buddhism.

 Mahayana or the Great Vehicle became popular and influential in India. Nalanda University was an important centre of Buddhist learning and was patronised by the Palas. Mahayana spread to China and Japan.

 Hinayana or the Lesser Vehicle became popular in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and other South-east Asian countries.

 By the end of the Gupta period, Vajrayana or the Vehicle of the Thunderbolt emerged. It was popular in Bengal and Bihar.

 It was influenced by primitive local cults and spread to Tibet in the 11th century CE. The Vikramasila University in Bihar was an important centre of Vajrayana Buddhism

Sri Lankan President Maithripala Sirisena today handed over a proposal seeking to declare the Theravada Tripitaka, the sacred ure of Buddhists, as a UNESCO World Heritage.

 The proposal was officially handed over during a national ceremony held in Kandy to the UN resident coordinator in Sri Lanka, Hanaa Singer.

 The Theravada Tripitaka was declared a National heritage of Sri Lanka by President in January 2019.

 Buddha’s teachings were initially propagated through word of mouth for generations till the Tripitaka was finally written down in Sri Lanka about 100 years BC.

 The teachings are contained in three volumes titled ‘Sutta, Vinaya and Abhidhamma’.

 They were first compiled and written on palm leaves with more than 1000 monks involved in the task in Aluvihare near Matale.

The Digha Nikaya is the compilation of the long discourses of Buddha. The book is translated in English as part of Max Mueller’s 50-volume Sacred Books of the East. Muller himself studied Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, French, German and English, and of course Latin and ancient Greek.

Buddhism faced divisions from time to time. Division into various splinter groups like ‘Hinayana’, ‘Mahayana’, ‘Vajrayana’, ‘Tantrayana’ and ‘Sahajayana’ led Buddhism to lose its originality.

Stupas.

Statement 1 is incorrect: Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from the

Vedic period. It is a conventional representation of a funeral cumulus in which relics and

ashes of the dead were kept.

Statement 2 is correct: During the period of Ashoka, the art of stupas reached its

climax. Almost 84000 stupas were erected during his period. Although a Vedic tradition,

stupas were popularised by the Buddhists

The sixth century BCE is known as an era of Second Urbanisation in the

Indian Subcontinent. After the decline of the Harappan towns and nearly after a gap of

more than a thousand years, urban centres emerged again but not in the Indus plain.

• The centre of economic and political activity shifted from the North-West,

Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP, to Eastern UP and Bihar (Ganga Basin).

• This region was not only fertile on account of better rainfall and river systems, but

was also closer to the iron production centres.

• The new iron agricultural tools and implements (such as the ploughshare)

enabled the people to clear thick forest cover and cultivate the hard soil of this area.

• Also, iron weapons made the warrior class more important, and slowly, people

gained a strong allegiance to the territory they belonged to rather than the Jana or

tribe.

• The use of better iron tools and weapons enabled some territorial states to

become very large, and they came to be called Mahajanapadas (large territorial

states) in North India (cities and states became visible in South India a few centuries

later).

• Most of the Mahajanapadas were situated in the north of Vindhyas, between

Bihar in the east to the north-west frontier of the subcontinent.

Important Buddhist writers and their works.

• Asvaghosha: Author of the Buddhacharita in Sanskrit. Contemporary of Kanishka.

He was a poet, dramatist, musician, scholar, and debater.

• Asanga and Vasubandhu: Two brothers who flourished in the Punjab region in the fourth century CE. Asanga was the most important teacher of Yogachara or

Vijnanavada school founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha. Vasubandhus greatest

work, Abhidharmakosa, is still considered an important encyclopaedia of

Buddhism.

• Buddhaghosa: He lived in the fifth century and was a great Pali scholar. His bestknown

work is the Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), a comprehensive

summary and analysis of the Theravada understanding of the Buddhas path to

liberation.

• Nagarjuna: He is considered to be the founder of the Madhyamaka school of

Mahayana Buddhism. He was a friend and contemporary of Satvahana King

Gautamiputra of Andhra.

The Sriparvata Arama project supported by the Government of India and

executed by the Telangana State Tourism Development Corporation (TSTDC), is an attempt

to capture the Buddhist heritage of the Telugu country and interpret it to the present

generation.

• The project also seeks to revive the forgotten Buddhist visual art traditions. Of the

three schools of Buddhist art, the Madhura School, the Gandhara School and the

Amaravati School, the last one belongs to the Telugu country.

• It is this School that flourished all over the South-India, even in Sri Lanka. It is also

this school which is celebrated for its quality of ‘moving images’ and for capturing

social and cultural life of the times in addition to religious imagery.

• Our artists and sculptors gave up Buddhist architecture and sculpture after the

decline of Buddhism around the 7th Century CE; the later temple architecture and

sculpture belong to the Pallavan and Chalukyan art traditions.

• The Arama project seeks to revive the forgotten Amaravati School of Art.

Sixth century BCE was a period of intense intellectual ferment. There are several reasons for the emergence of this ferment.

• State formation and the rigidity of the Vedic religion constrained the liberty of thought and action.
• A revolt against religious practice of following dogmas found its articulation in heterodox sects.
• The emergence of territorial identities accelerated the process of sociopolitical and economic changes.
• The elite class, disillusioned with the system in place, began to move in protest towards the heterodox religions blossoming in Magadha or middle Ganges plains.
• As the Vedic religion was not fully organized, its reach did not permeate into the society and hence people did not find it difficult to follow the newly emerging religious sects.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 46.

A Buddhist text, Samannaphala Sutta, while making a reference to Ajatashatru of Magadha meeting Gautama Buddha.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 46.

The Ajivikas are believed to have evolved from one of the many ascetic groups of the times.

According to Buddhist records, Nanda Vaccha was considered the founder of the Ajivika sect.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 46.

The term “lokayata” signifies materialist thought. Indian materialism has also been named Carvaka after one of the two founders of the school.

• Carvaka and Ajita Kesakambalin are said to have established Indian materialism as a formal philosophical system.
• Carvakas developed the concept of scepticism and believed in the pursuit of knowledge through experience. They questioned the authority of Vedas.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 47.

There was intense rivalry among the various heterodox sects.

• This is evident from the various religious accounts of the period.
• Buddhist and Jaina texts not only mention other heterodox sects but also belittle them.
• For example, Bhagavatisutra, a Jaina text, provides a poor account of Makkhali Gosala.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 47.

Among the various sects, the sect led by Vardhamana Mahavira (referred to as Nigantha Nataputta by Buddhist texts) bloomed into a religion called Jainism. It was earlier known as Nirgranthas (free from bonds).

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 48.

Magadha was affected by severe famine and some of the Jaina monks under Bhadrabahu went south to maintain their strict discipline.

• They remained without garments and were known as Digambaras (space-clad or naked).
• Others stayed back under the leadership of Sthulabhadra and adopted a white garment and were known as Svetambaras (white-clad).
• The schism weakened Jainism in Magadha, but it found ardent followers in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 49.

Jain discipline requires adherence to certain rigorous rules. The Jains are required to follow three principles called Triratnas or Three Gems.

• Right faith (samyag-darshana);
• Right knowledge (samyag-jnana);
• Right conduct (samyag-mahavrata)

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 49.

Jainism is an egalitarian religion. It does not sanction any inequality based on birth.

• It is one’s deeds that determine one’s status in society and not birth.
• Jainism believes that “by one’s action one becomes a Brahmin, a Kshatriya, or a Vaishya, or a Sudra.”
• Pride based on birth is considered a sin.
• Women were admitted into the monastic order. However, as a woman one cannot attain salvation.
• By accumulating merit by good deeds, a woman could be reborn as a man and then strive to attain salvation.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 50.

Jainism spread to Tamil Nadu from about the third century CE. Jaina rock shelters are found in large numbers around Madurai and other places.

• The mention of death of Kopperuncholan by fasting in chol Purananuru is considered by some to be similar to Jaina practice of sallekhana.
• Jaina influence is strong in early Tamil literature. Naladiyar, Palamoli, Jivaka Chinthamani, Yapperunkalam Karikai, Neelakesi are some of the prominent Jaina works in Tamil.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 51.

Tibetan Buddhism has four major schools, namely Nyingma, (8th century),

Kagyu, (11th century), Sakya, (1073), and Gelug, (1409).

Sowa-Rigpa is one of the oldest, living and well documented medical traditions popular in

the world. The term ‘Sowa Rigpa’ is derived from Bhoti language which means ‘Knowledge of

Healing’. It is an ancient medical system which was enriched in the entire Trans-Himalayan

Region

Option 1 is correct. The Buddhist cloister of Ajina tepe is situated at a distance of 12 km east from the city of Kurgan-Tiube, Tajikistan.

Option 2 is correct. Termez is a city in the southernmost part of Uzbekistan. The ancient Termez was one of the largest centres of Buddhism in the region.

Option 3 is correct. Sahri Bahlol, is a city and archaeological site located in Mardan District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It is a historical place and it has been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1980. The site has remnants of Buddhist structures.

According to Puranic, Buddhist and Jaina traditions, there were sixteen mahajanapadas.
• The proto-states of the Gangetic region were known as janapadas and comprised chiefdoms, republics and small kingdoms.
• There were also ganasanghas or oligarchies, which were centred on clans. The Vrijjis were one of the best known of the gana-sanghas, and Vaishali was their capital in the Mithila region.
• The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies. Vedic orthodoxy was an established practice in these kingdoms.

The abacus and the animal part of the Sarnath pillar forms the official
national emblem of India. In the abacus of the Sarnath pillar, four animals are shown
representing four directions – a galloping horse (west), a bull (east), an elephant
(south) and a lion (north). The animals seem to follow each other turning the wheel of
existence till eternity.

Craft products like textile goods, ivory products, pots, etc., were exported over
long distances by merchants. All the major cities were situated on river banks and trade
routes, and were connected with each other.
•The two major trans-regional routes of the time were known as Uttarapatha (of
northern India, stretching from the north-west across the Indo-Gangetic plains to
the port city of Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal).
•Dakshinapatha (of southern India, stretching from Pataliputra in Magadha to
Pratishthana on the Godavari, and connected to ports on the western coast).

The play Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta was written during the Gupta period, sometime after the 4th century CE.
It narrates Chandragupta’s accession to the throne of the Magadha Empire and the exploits of his chief advisor Chanakya or Kautilya by listing the strategies he used to counter an invasion against Chandragupta.
This play is often cited as a corroborative source since it supports the information gathered from other contemporary sources about Chandragupta.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 59.

Contemporary accounts by Greek historians show that Chandragupta was a youth living in Taxila when Alexander invaded India. Greek historians have recorded his name as “Sandrakottus” or “Sandrakoptus”, which are evidently modified forms of Chandragupta.
Inspired by Alexander, Chandragupta led a revolt against the Nandas years later and overthrew them.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 63.

The defining event of Ashoka’s rule was his campaign against Kalinga (present-day Odisha) in the eighth year of his reign. This is the only recorded military expedition of the Mauryas. The number of those killed in battle, those who died subsequently, and those deported ran into tens of thousands.
The campaign had probably been more ferocious and brutal than usual because this was a punitive war against Kalinga, which had broken away from the Magadha Empire (the Hathigumpha inscription speaks of Kalinga as a part of the Nanda Empire).
Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri caves is the main source of information about Kalinga ruler Kharavela. This inscription, consisting of seventeen lines has been incised in deep cut Brahmi script.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 64.

One of the major events of Ashoka’s reign was the convening of the Third Buddhist sangha (council) in 250 BCE in the capital Pataliputra. Ashoka’s deepening commitment to Buddhism meant that royal patronage was extended to the Buddhist establishment. An important outcome of this sangha was the decision to expand the reach of Buddhism to other parts of the region and to send missions to convert people to the religion.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 66.

At the head of the administration was the king. He was assisted by a council of ministers and a purohita or priest, who was a person of great importance, and secretaries known as mahamatriyas. The capital region of Pataliputra was directly administered.
Revenue collection was the responsibility of a collector-general (samaharta) who was also in charge of exchequer that he was, in effect, like a minister of finance.
At the next level of administration came the districts, villages and towns. The district was under the command of a sthanika, while officials known as gopas were in charge of five to ten villages. Urban administration was handled by a nagarika. Villages were semi-autonomous and were under the authority of a gramani, appointed by the central government, and a council of village elders.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 67 and 68.

The capital region of Pataliputra was directly administered. The rest of the empire was divided into four provinces based at Suvarnagiri (near Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh), Ujjain (Avanti, Malwa), Taxila in the northwest, and Tosali in Odisha in the southeast. The provinces were administered by governors who were usually royal princes.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 67.

Ashoka’s rule gives us an alternative model of a righteous king and a just state. He instructed his officials, the yuktas (subordinate officials), rajjukas (rural administrators) and pradesikas (heads of the districts) to go on tours every five years to instruct people in dhamma (Major Rock Edict 3).
Ashoka realised that an effective ruler needed to be fully informed about what was happening in his kingdom and insisted that he should be advised and informed promptly wherever he might be (Major Rock Edict 6).
He insisted that all religions should co-exist and the ascetics of all religions were honoured (Major Rock Edicts 7 and 12).
Providing medical care should be one of the functions of the state, the emperor ordered hospitals to be set up to treat human beings and animals (Major Rock Edict 2).
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 68,69.

The highly centralized administration became unmanageable when Ashoka’s successors were weak and inefficient. The last ruler Brihadratha was killed by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga Dynasty that ruled India for over hundred tears.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 73

Around 40 km from Bodh Gaya lies a cluster of four caves, namely Karan Chaupar, Lomas Rishi, Sudama and Visvakarma, known as the Barabar Caves. Carved out from a monolithic granite rock, these are supposed to have been constructed by emperor Ashoka for the use of Ajivaka ascetics. The most unique cave is Lomas Rishi, whose façade is an exact replica of the wood and thatch huts of monks. The interior of the cave has a remarkable glass-like polish.
Source: Old NCERT page 133

The names of Chandragupta and his two successors in the Mauryan period are well known now. But reconstructing their lives and careers was a laborious and difficult process for the earlier historians.
There are hardly any comprehensive contemporary accounts or literary works which refer to the Mauryan emperors though they are mentioned in various Buddhist and Jain texts as well as in some Hindu works like the brahmanas.
The Mahavamsa, the comprehensive historical chronicle in Pali from Sri Lanka, is an important additional source.
The scattered information from these sources has been corroborated by accounts of Greek historians who left their accounts about India following Alexander’s campaign in north-western part of the country.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 59

Agricultural surplus, the growth of crafts and trade, and the growing population led to the emergence of towns in the Gangetic plains. This is called the second urbanisation in Indian history after the first urbanisation evident in the Harappan Civilization. Different types of towns came into being:
(i) Political and administrative centres such as Rajgriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi and Champa
(ii) Centres of trade and commerce such as Ujjain and Taxila
(iii) Holy centres such as Vaishali.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 43.

The proto-states of the Gangetic region were known as janapadas and comprised chiefdoms, republics and small kingdoms. Sixteen mahajanapadas find mention in the early texts.
There were also ganasanghas or oligarchies, which were centred on clans. The Vrijjis were one of the best known of the gana-sanghas, and Vaishali was their capital in the Mithila region.
These kingdoms did not come under the single decision-making authority of a king but decisions were taken on a collective basis by the heads of the different clans together.
There were also smaller kingdoms such as Kosala and Kasi. It is interesting to note that the names of the clans, such as Ikshvaku and Vrishni, as well as these early kingdoms, are all mentioned in the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.

The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies. Vedic orthodoxy was an established practice in these kingdoms. The kingship was hereditary and the succession was in most cases based on the law of primogeniture.
The king was assisted by councils called parishad and sabha. The councils were advisory in nature. The king appropriated the agricultural surplus through land revenue apart from a few other taxes.
Bali was a tax imposed based on the area of cultivable land. Bhaga was obtained as a share of the produce. Kara and Shulka were some of the other taxes collected during this period.
Thus the king raised revenue through taxes to maintain an elaborate administrative structure and an army.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada.
Modern historians explain this development in a variety of ways:
•Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
•Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
•Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
•Also, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
•However, early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
Source: Themes in Indian History Part 1, page no. 31.

According to Puranic, Buddhist and Jaina traditions, there were sixteen mahajanapadas.
1.Gandhara
2.Kamboja
3.Assaka
4.Vatsa
5.Avanti
6.Shurasena
7.Chedi
8.Malla
9.Kuru
10.Panchala
11.Matsya
12.Vajji (Vrijji)
13.Anga
14.Kasi
15.Kosala
16.Magadha

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 44.

Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of Buddha, started the process of empire building. It was strengthened by his son Ajatashatru and then by the Nandas.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 58.

Among the 16 mahajanapadas, Kasi was initially powerful. However, Kosala became dominant later. A power struggle broke out between Magadha, Kosala, Vrijji and Avanti. Eventually Magadha emerged as the dominant mahajanapada and established the first Indian empire.
The first known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty.
The Shishunagas ruled for fifty years before the throne was usurped by Mahapadma Nanda.
Chandragupta Maurya Founded the Mauryan Empire after winning over Nanda Dynasty.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 60.

The word “Hindu” appears for the first time in an inscription of Darius I at Persepolis, Iran. Darius lists “Hindu” as part of his empire. The word “Sindhu”, denoting a river in general and Indus in particular, became “Hindu” in Persian. The Greeks dropped the S and called it Indu, which eventually came to be called Hindu and later India.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 61.

Agriculture improved during this phase of development in the middle Gangetic plains. Wet rice cultivation began to yield more produce of rice than other crops, thus creating the necessary agrarian surplus.
Protected irrigation alone was not responsible for the surplus production of rice. Iron technology also played a crucial role. While it is debated whether iron axe aided clearing of the forests or whether iron ploughshare increased agricultural yield, there can be no two opinions that it played a critical role in improving the production of artefacts.
The impact of iron technology is better understood if one considers “the technical changes which the introduction of iron implements would have brought about in various craft activities”. Leisure time provided by agricultural surplus and technology led to growth of crafts, which in turn aided vibrant trade.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 43.

The richer landowners were called grihapatis. These landowners employed labourers called dasas or karmakaras. The smaller landowners were known as kassakas or krishakas.
The society was stratified on the basis of varna. It emerged as a marker of status. Cultivators and artisans were identified as the shudras. A new social category that emerged during this period was placed below the shudras in the social hierarchy and considered untouchables. They were forced to live on the fringes of the settlements and subsisted on hunting and gathering their food. They were marginalised and given only menial jobs as urbanisation was on the rise. They had their own language, which was different from that spoken by the Indo-Aryans.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.

Option 1 is correct. The state emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath

Lion Capital of Ashoka. In the state emblem, adopted by the Government of India on 26

January 1950, only three lions are visible.

In the original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a

frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion

separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of

polished sandstone, the Capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).

Option 2 is correct. The National Flag is a horizontal tricolor of India saffron at the top,

white in the middle and India green at the bottom in equal proportion.

In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel which represents the chakra. Its

design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of

Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes.

Option 3 is incorrect. The national calendar based on the Saka Era, with Chaitra as its

first month and a normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22 March 1957 along with the

Gregorian calendar for the following official purposes. It commenced in 78 AD.

Patanjali, the notable grammarian who wrote the Mahabhasya was a contemporary of Pushyamitra Sunga.

The most important feature of the Sangam economy was flourishing trade with the Roman world.
•The best account of Indo-Roman trade is given in the book called the Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea, which was written in the first century CE by an anonymous author
•Major items of export to the Romans were the Indian products such as spices (included yavanapriya or pepper), perfumes, jewels, ivory and fine textiles (muslin especially), several precious and semi-precious stones like diamond, carnelian, turquoise, agate, sapphire, and so on, besides pearls, indigo, sandalwood, iron and steel cutlery.

Though the three Tamil ruling families were known to Asoka in the third century BCE itself, some individual names are known only from the Sangam poems of the first century and later.
Known as muvendar, ‘the three crowned kings’, the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas controlled major agrarian territories, trade routes and towns.
But the Satiyaputra (same as Athiyaman) found in the Asokan inscription along with the above three houses is a Velir chief in the Sangam poems.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 82.

The Cholas controlled the central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Their core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as Cholamandalam. Their capital was Uraiyur (near Thiruchirapalli town) and Puhar or Kaviripattinam was an alternative royal residence and chief port town.
The Cheras controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control.
The Pandyas ruled from Madurai. Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 82, 83.

Sangam poems help us understand the social formation of the time. According to the thinai concept, Tamilagam was divided into five landscapes or eco-regions namely Kurinji, Marutam, Mullai, Neytal and Palai.
Each region had distinct characteristics – a presiding deity, people and cultural life according to the environmental conditions, as follows:
•Kurinji: hilly region: hunting and gathering
•Marutham: riverine tract: agriculture using plough and irrigation.
•Mullai: forested region: pastoralism combined with shifting cultivation
•Neythal: coastal land: fishing and salt making.
•Palai: parched land. Unsuitable for cultivation and hence people took to cattle lifting and robbery.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 83.

There is evidence of craft production such as bronze vessels, beads and gold works, textiles, shell bangles and ornaments, glass, iron smithy, pottery making.
Craft production was common in the major urban centres such as Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam, Madurai, Korkai, and Pattanam in Kerala. Maduraikanchi speaks about day markets as well as and night markets selling several craft goods.
The names of persons mentioned in inscriptions on pottery reveal the presence of non-Tamil speakers, mostly traders, in certain craft centres and towns. Traders from faraway regions were present in the Tamil country.
Manimegalai refers to Magadha artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths and Yavana carpenters working in cooperation with Tamil craftsmen.
Traderelated terms such as vanikan, chattan and nigama appear in the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Salt merchants called umanar, travelled in bullock carts along with their families for trade activities. Chattu referred to the itinerary or mobile merchants.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 85.

Menander is mainly remembered as the eponymous hero of the Buddhist text, Milinda-pinha (questions of Milinda), in which he is engaged in a question-and-answer discussion on Buddhism with the teacher Nagasena. He is believed to have become a Buddhist and promoted Buddhism.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 93.

The Indo-Greek kingdoms in north-western India were ousted by various nomadic tribes from Central Asia, known as the Sakas (Scythians), Parthians (Pahlavis) and Kushanas (yueh-chi or yuezhi tribes in Chinese). In spite of the fact that they followed the Greek practice of issuing vast amounts of coinage with their names and titles (mostly “king of kings”), this is a very confusing period in our history.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 94.

Shakas – Kushanas introduced better cavalry & use of riding horses on large scale along with use of turban, tunic, trousers & longcoats.
Kushanas were the 1st ruler in India to issue gold coins on wide scale & controlled major part of silk trade.
Kushanas adopted pompous titles as King of Kings & were called Sons of god like Asoka was called Dear to gods.
Source: Old NCERT class 11, page no. 146

Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist philosophers such as Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna.
Asvaghosha is known for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the author of the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts.
The great dramatist Bhasa, whose plays were re-discovered only about a hundred years ago in South India, most probably belonged to this period.
Among the Hindu treatises, we find the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra and Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape by the second century CE.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 96.

King Hala is credited with the writing of Gatha Sattasai, a collection of 700 love poems. Written in Maharshtri Prakrit dialect, it has themes similar to those found in the Tamil Sangam poetry.
Asvaghosha is known for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the author of the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts.
Among the Hindu treatises, we find the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra and Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape by the second century CE.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 81 and 96.

The Cheras controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control.
Vanji is identified with Karur, while some scholars identify it with Tiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala. Now it is accepted by most scholars that there were two main branches of the Chera family and the Poraiya branch ruled from Karur of present-day Tamil Nadu.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 82.

The emergence of the Gupta Empire in 4th century A.D. is often hailed as the “Golden period of Indian Architecture”.

 While the earlier Gupta rulers were Buddhists and continued the traditions of Buddhist architecture, temple architecture came to the fore front under the patronage of the Hindu rulers of the later Gupta phase.

 Temple architecture reached its climax during this period. Similarly, Buddhist and Jain art also reached its peak during the Gupta Age.

 The Gupta rulers, especially in the later phase, were Brahmanical rulers. However, they showed exemplary tolerance for all other religions.

 Three principal deities were worshipped – Vishnu in the Northern and Central part of India, Shiva in the Southern part and Shakti in the Eastern part of India as well as in the Malabar coast or South-west part of India.

Evidence on the origin and antecedents of the Gupta dynasty is limited. The Gupta kings seem to have risen from modest origins.

Chandragupta I, who was the third ruler of the Gupta dynasty married Kumaradevi, a Lichchavi prince. The marriage is mentioned in the records of his successors with pride indicating that that royal connection would have contributed to the rise of Guptas. Lichchavi was an old, established gana-sangha and its territory lay between the Ganges and the Nepal Terai.

According to Allahabad pillar inscription Samudragupta, the illustrious son of Chandragupta I, had conquered the whole fertile plains west of Prayag to Mathura and launched a spectacular raid through Kalinga into the south as far as Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital. The Puranas mention Magadha, Allahabad and Oudh as the Gupta dominions.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 107.

Samudragupta patronised scholars and poets like Harisena and thus promoted Sanskrit literature. Though an ardent follower of Vaishnavism, he also patronised the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu. As a lover of poetry and music, he was given the title “Kaviraja”. His coins bear the insignia of him playing the vina (lute).

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 109.

The first ruler of the Gupta Empire was Sri Gupta (240–280 CE) who was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE). Both Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharajas in inscriptions. Chandragupta I, the son of Ghatotkacha, ruled from 319 to 335 CE and is considered to be the first great king of the Gupta Empire. Chandragupta held the title of maharaja-adhiraja (great king over other kings).

Historians call Samudragupta as the Napoleon of India. This statement is undeniable that the southern kings paid tribute, while the northern kingdoms were annexed to the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta. His direct control was confined to the Ganges valley, since the Sakas remained unconquered in western India. The tribes of Rajasthan paid tribute, but the Punjab was outside the limits of his authority. Samudragupta’s campaign broke the power of the tribal republics in those regions that led to repeated invasions from the Huns.

Named after his grandfather, Chandragupta II was a capable ruler, who ruled for 40 years from c. 375 to 415 CE. He came to power after a succession struggle with his brother Rama Gupta. He is also known as Vikramaditya.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 107-109.

As stated in Paharpur plates, an officer called ustapala maintained records of all the land transactions in the district and the village accountant preserved records of land in the village. During the Gupta period, the land was classified as detailed below.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 112.

The importance of irrigation to agriculture was recognised in India from the earliest times.

From the Narada Smriti, we understand that there were two kinds of dykes: the bardhya, which protected the field from floods, and the khara, which served the purpose of irrigation.

To prevent inundation, jalanirgamah (drains) were constructed, which is mentioned by Amarasimha.

Canals were constructed not only from rivers but also from tanks and lakes. The most famous lake was the Sudarsana lake at the foot of Girnar Hills in Gujarat.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 113.

The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini who wrote Ashtadhyayi and Patanjali who wrote Mahabhashya on the topic. This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosa, a thesaurus in Sanskrit, by Amarasimha. A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Chandrogomia, composed a book on grammar named Chandravyakaranam.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 116.

The most important and visible evidence of the high stage of development in metallurgy is the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of King Chandra in the Qutb Minar Complex in Delhi, identified with Chandragupta II. This monolith iron pillar has lasted through the centuries without rusting. It is a monument to the great craftsmanship of the iron workers during the Gupta period. Coin casting, metal engraving, pottery making, terracotta work and wood carving were other specialised crafts.

The contribution of traders to the soundness of the Gupta economy is quite impressive. Two distinctive types of traders called sresti and sarthavaha existed. Sresti was usually settled at a particular place and enjoyed an eminent position by virtue of his wealth and influence in the commercial life and administration of the place. The sarthavaha was a caravan trader who carried his goods to different places for profitable sale.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 114.

In the Surya Siddanta, Aryabhatta (belonging to late fifth and early sixth century CE) examined the true cause of the solar eclipses. In calculation of the size of the earth, he is very close to the modern estimation. He was the first astronomer to discover that the earth rotates on its own axis. He is also the author of Aryabhattiyam, which deals with arithmetic, geometry and algebra.

Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita (sixth century CE) is an encyclopaedia of astronomy, physical geography, botany and natural history. His other works are Panch Siddhantika and Brihat Jataka. Brahmagupta (late sixth and early seventh century CE) is author of important works on mathematics and astronomy, namely Brahmasphuta-siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 118.

Harsha sought to extend his authority southward into the Deccan. However the Chalukya king Pulikesin II, who controlled the region, humbled Harsha. In commemoration of his victory over Harsha, Pulikesin assumed the title of “Parameswara”. Inscriptions in Pulikesin’s capital Badami attest to this victory.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 126.

Harsha patronised literary and cultural activities. It is said the state spent a quarter of its revenue for such activities. Bana, the author of Harshacharita and Kadambari, was a court poet of Harsha.

The emperor himself was a renowned litterateur, which is evident from the plays he wrote such as Priyadarsika, Rathnavali and Nagananda. Harsha gifted liberally for the promotion of education. Temples and monasteries functioned as centres of learning.

Renowned scholars imparted education in the monasteries at Kanauj, Gaya, Jalandhar, Manipur and other places. The Nalanda University reached its utmost fame during this period.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 130.

Acharya Pingala was the ancient Indian author of Chandah-Sutra.

It is said to have first known description of a binary numeral system in connection with

the systematic enumeration of meters with fixed patterns of short and long syllables.

Halayudha’s commentary includes a presentation of Pascal’s triangle (called meruprastāra).

Pingala’s work also includes material related to the Fibonacci numbers, called matrameru.

After the overthrow of the White Huns no supreme power existed in India until the beginning of the 7th century.

 The decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disorder and disunity in North India.

 It was only in the beginning of the seventh century AD that Harshvardhana (606-647 or 648) succeeded in establishing a larger kingdom in north India.

 Harsha, originally king of Thaneswar, after a thirty-five years’ war, became the lord paramount of the north, while Pulikesin II, the greatest of the Chalukya dynasty, was the leading sovereign in the south.

The Aihole inscription of Pulikesin II composed by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit is among the most important of Chalukyan inscriptions. Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in Kannada, Vikramarjuna-vijayam, also called Pampa-bharata, by Pampa in Kannada, which were all of a later period, and Nannaya’s Mahabharatam in Telugu also provide useful historical data.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 139.

The wild boar was the royal insignia of the Chalukyas. It was claimed that it represented the varaha avatar of Vishnu in which he is said to have rescued the Goddess of the Earth. The bull, Siva’s mount, was the symbol of the Pallavas.

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 142.