Geography related articles in News

Source- This post on Hydrocarbon extraction is based on the article “How does hydrocarbon extraction happen?” published in “The Hindu” on 15th April 2024.

Why in the News?

Hydrocarbons have been the foundational elements of crucial energy resources around the globe.

What is hydrocarbon and where are they located?

1. A hydrocarbon is an organic compound made solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

2. These naturally occurring substances are the foundational elements of crucial energy resources such as crude oil, natural gas, coal, and others.

3. Hydrocarbons are primarily located in subterranean rock formations. Hydrocarbons are also found in plants, animals, and their fossils. 

4. They exist in various forms such as natural gas, coal, crude oil, and petroleum.

5. These hydrocarbons accumulate in reservoirs underground when a more resistant rock type overlays a less resistant one, creating a lid that causes hydrocarbons to accumulate below it.

6. The primary source of hydrocarbons in this rocky underground is called kerogen, which are lumps of organic matter.

Note: The type of kerogen determines the type of hydrocarbon that is produced.

How are hydrocarbons extracted?

1. Location Determination: Petroleum geologists evaluate rock porosity and permeability to locate hydrocarbon reservoirs.

They identify source rocks rich in kerogen, the main hydrocarbon source, and use data-driven modeling and exploratory drilling to estimate hydrocarbon volumes.

2. Drilling: Drilling and reservoir engineers aim to maximize extraction without harming the reservoir. They drill a production well, the main channel through which hydrocarbons are brought to the surface.

3. Preparation: The plant material is prepared by grinding or breaking it down into smaller pieces for increased surface area.

4. Extraction: The prepared material is placed in the extraction vessel, and the hydrocarbon solvent is passed over it to dissolve the desired compounds.

UPSC Syllabus- Science and Technology

Source-This post on Volcanic Vortex Rings is based on the article “A Sicilian volcano is blowing smoke rings in the sky. What are volcanic vortex rings?” published in “Indian Express” on 12th April 2024.

Why in the News?

Mount Etna has been producing a volcanic vortex ring which has captivated scientists.

About volcanic vortex ring

1. Vortex rings are generated when gas which is predominantly water vapour, is released rapidly through a vent in the crater.

2. They are made from a mix of smoke, steam and other gases released from volcanic vents at high speeds.

3. The rings can remain in the air for up to 10 minutes but tend to disintegrate quickly if conditions are windy and turbulent.

3. This phenomenon was first observed at Etna and Vesuvius in Italy in 1724.

5. In more recent times, volcanic vortex rings have been observed at volcanoes such as Redoubt in Alaska, Tungurahua in Ecuador, Pacaya in Guatemala, Eyjafjallajökull and Hekla in Iceland, Stromboli in Italy, Aso and Sakurajima in Japan, Yasur in Vanuatu, Whakaari in New Zealand, and Momotombo in Nicaragua.

About Mount Etna

1. Mount Etna is an active volcano on the east coast of Sicily. It is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.

2. Etna’s peak is the highest in Italy south of the Alps, and is Europe’s largest and one of the most active volcanoes.

3. Etna’s summit has five craters, which are responsible for most of the volcano’s eruptions; there are also “flank” eruptions that occur out of 300-odd vents of varying sizes along the slopes of the mountain.

4. Since the year 1600, it has experienced consistent activity, including at least 60 flank eruptions and numerous additional summit eruptions.

UPSC Syllabus: Science and technology, World Geography

Source-This post on Oceanic Niño Index has been created based on the article ” Two reasons why food inflation may soften in the months ahead” published in “The Indian Express” on 9 April 2024.

Why in the news?

The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has predicted that there is a 83% chance that the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) will move into a neutral range by April-June 2024. It is predicted that El Nino event will not take place due to ONI moving into neutral range.

About Oceanic Niño Index (ONI)

1) ENSO is measured by two indices- Oceanic Niño Index and Southern Oscillation Index- Oceanic Nino Index (ONI) is the primary indicator for monitoring the ocean part of  El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or “ENSO”. Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is the primary indicator for monitoring the atmospheric part of ENSO.

2) The ONI tracks the running 3-month average sea surface temperatures in the east-central tropical Pacific between 120°-170°W, near the International Dateline. It also determines whether they are warmer or cooler than average.

3) ONI values are used to predict El Niño and La Niña-

What are El Nino and La Nina?

Description-El Nino and La Nina are two opposing climate trends that deviate from the normal conditions and normally run 9 to 12 months. El Nino is known as the warm phase and La Nina is known as the cold phase of ENSO.

Frequency– These events occur every 2 to 7 years on average. El Niño is more frequent than La Nina. They are together referred to as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle by scientists.

Impacts– Both El Nino and La Nina have global effects on weather, wildfires, ecosystems and economics.

Read more- El Nino: Concept and impacts

UPSC Syllabus-Geography in news

Source-This post on Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’ is based on the article “Massive earthquake hits Taiwan: What is the Ring of Fire?” published in “The Indian Express” on 4th April 2024.

Why in the News?

Recently, a massive earthquake hit Taiwan, resulting in the loss of many lives. Taiwan is prone to earthquakes because it lies along the Pacific “Ring of Fire,” where 90% of the world’s earthquakes take place.

What is Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’?

1. The Ring of Fire, also known as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a chain of numerous volcanoes and earthquake–prone areas that stretches along the Pacific Ocean.

2. It forms a horseshoe-shaped semicircle, spanning approximately 40,250 kilometres in length.

3. The Ring of Fire marks the borders between multiple tectonic plates such as the Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Indian-Australian, Nazca, North American, and Philippine Plates.

4. It passes through 15 additional countries, including the USA, Indonesia, Mexico, Japan, Canada, Guatemala, Russia, Chile, Peru, and the Philippines.

Features of Ring of Fire

1. Active volcanoes:

a. Volcanoes in the Ring of Fire are caused by the movement of tectonic plates, often through a process called subduction. This occurs when two plates collide, with the heavier one being pushed beneath the other, resulting in the formation of deep trenches.
b. The Ring of Fire hosts over 450 active and inactive volcanoes, making up 75% of the Earth’s total volcanoes. These volcanoes form a semicircle or horseshoe shape around the Pacific Ocean rim.
c. The majority of active volcanoes along the Ring of Fire are located on its western side, spanning from Russia to New Zealand.

2. Earthquakes:
a. The Ring of Fire experiences frequent earthquakes because the tectonic plates continuously slide past, collide with, or move above or below each other.
b. 90% of earthquakes happen along the Ring of Fire, including some of the most powerful ones. For example- The Valdivia Earthquake in Chile in 1960, which measured 9.5 on the Richter scale, holds the record as the strongest earthquake ever recorded.

3. Trenches:
a. The Ring of Fire includes the Mariana Trench, the deepest ocean trench, which reaches a depth of 7 miles.
b. Other trenches in the area include the Philippine Trench, Challenger Trench, Kuril-Kamchatka Trench, Peru-Chile Trench, and Tonga Trench.

UPSC Syllabus- Geography in news

Source-This post on Paradip Port is based on the article “Paradip Port becomes numero uno among Indian Major Ports in cargo throughput in FY 2023-24” published in “PIB” on 2nd April 2024.

Why in the News?

Paradip Port has become the country’s highest cargo-handling major port, surpassing Deendayal Port, Kandla, for the first time in 56 years during the financial year 2023-24.

About Paradip Port

Port Administration in India

1. In India, there are three types of ports: major, minor and intermediate.

2. Major ports are managed by the Central Government, while minor and intermediate ports are overseen by nine coastal states of Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

3. India has 205 minor and intermediate ports, along with 13 major seaports (12 government-owned and one private), collectively handling substantial business.

Difference between Major and Minor ports

UPSC Syllabus – Geography and Places in news

Source-This post on Leap Second is based on the article “Melting ice sheets may postpone need for ‘negative leap second’” published in “The Indian Express” on 1st April 2024.

Why in the News?

According to a recent study, Earth’s changing rotation, influenced by factors such as climate change and geological shifts, may result in clocks skipping a second, potentially leading to the need for a “negative leap second” around 2029.

What is Leap Second?

1. About- It is a one-second adjustment used to address the gradual slowdown of Earth’s rotation, caused by the continuous melting and refreezing of ice caps.

2. Introduced by– International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service in 1972.

3. Addition of leap second– It is periodically added to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to keep clocks worldwide synchronized with atomic time and to compensate for the Earth’s gradually slowing rotation. So far, 27 positive leap seconds have been added.

4. Reason for addition– Earth’s rotation on its axis is not consistent; it can speed up or slow down due to factors like the moon’s gravitational pull, which leads to ocean tides.

5. Usual date of addition– A leap second is typically added either on June 30th or December 31st.

What is Negative leap Second?

1. About– It is a second that is removed from our clocks to maintain synchronization with the Earth’s rotation. So far, no negative leap second has been needed because the Earth’s rotation has generally been slightly slower over the past few decades.

2. Administration– The International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) oversees Earth’s rotation and determines when to add or subtract a leap second.

3. Recent impact– Recently, because the Earth has been spinning faster than usual, timekeepers thought about using negative leap seconds for the first time.

UPSC Syllabus- Geography in news

Source-This post on Kallakkadal: A phenomenon leading to floods in Kerala is based on the article “What is Kallakkadal, which has flooded houses in Kerala’s coastal areas?” published in “The Indian Express” on 3rd April 2024.

Why in the News?

Recently, numerous homes in Kerala’s coastal regions have been flooded due to high sea waves, which are referred to as swell waves. These flooding incidents are termed swell surge or Kallakkadal in Malayalam.

What is Kallakkadal?

1. About– Kallakkadal refers to coastal flooding caused by swell waves during the pre-monsoon season (April-May) and sometimes during post monsoon along the southwest coast of India.

2. Meaning:
a. The term “Kallakkadal,” coined by local fishermen, combines two Malayalam words: “Kallan,” meaning thief, and “Kadal,” meaning sea. When spoken, these words were combined as “Kallakkadal,” signifying the sea arriving like a thief.
b. In 2012, UNESCO formally approved this term.

What causes Kallakkadal?

1. Ocean swell and distant storms:
a. It is caused by waves formed by ocean swells, which originate from distant storms such as hurricanes or prolonged periods of intense gale winds.
b. These storms transfer significant energy from the air into the water, resulting in the formation of extremely high waves.
c. These waves can travel vast distances from the storm centre until they reach the shoreline.

2. Formation– Typically, Kallakkadal occurs due to strong winds in the southern Indian Ocean, where ocean swells are generated. These waves then travel northward, taking around two to three days to reach the coastline.

Challenges in its Preparedness

1. Kallakkadal happens suddenly without local wind activity, making it hard for coastal residents to receive advance notice.

2. Yet, systems like the Swell Surge Forecast System, initiated by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) in 2020, provide a seven-day warning.

How it is different from Tsunami?

UPSC Syllabus- Geography in news

Source-This post on Africa’s Afar Triangle is based on the article “Geologists have found a fault that create world’s sixth ocean” published in “Times of India” on 22nd March 2024.

Why in the News?

Recent geological discoveries indicate that the Afar Triangle in Africa may become the origin of a new ocean within the next 5 to 10 million years.

About Africa’s Afar Triangle

1. The Afar Triangle, located in the Horn of Africa, is a geological depression where three tectonic plates- the Nubian, Somali, and Arabian plates- meet.

2. In addition to its geological importance, the Afar Triangle has a rich palaeontological history, revealing fossils of some of the earliest hominins.

3. It is part of the Great Rift Valley in East Africa.

4. It spans across Eritrea, Djibouti, and the Afar Region of Ethiopia.

5. It contains Lake Assal, which is Africa’s lowest point.

6. It is bordered by the Ethiopian Plateau, the Danakil block, the Somali Plateau, and the Ali-Sabieh block.

What are the causes for the rift in Afar region?

Tectonic movements and rift expansion:

1. The Afar region has undergone gradual tectonic shifts over millions of years. In 2005, a big crack appeared in the Ethiopian desert, showing how Africa is still splitting apart due to these forces.

2. A significant contributor to the rifting process is thought to be a massive plume of superheated heated rocks ascending from the mantle beneath East Africa.

3. The presence of magma in the area, especially around the Erta Ale volcano, provides insights into the tectonic shift.

Note– Rifting is a geological process when the Earth’s outer layer gets stretched and thinned, creating rift valleys or basins. This happens mostly at divergent plate boundaries, where tectonic plates move apart.

UPSC Syllabus- Geography and Places in news

Source-This post on Katchatheevu Island is based on the article “Did Congress ‘give away’ Katchatheevu island to Sri Lanka?” published in “The Indian Express” on 1st April 2024.

Why in the News?

PM Narendra Modi recently criticized the Congress for giving away the strategic Katchatheevu island to Sri Lanka in the 1970s.

About Katchatheevu Island

1. Location– Katchatheevu is a small, uninhabited island covering 285 acres located in the Palk Strait, between India and Sri Lanka. Katchatheevu lies 33 km northeast of Rameswaram and about 62 km southwest of Jaffna.

2. Sole Structure on Island– The island’s sole structure is St. Anthony’s Church, built in the early 20th century. Every year, during a festival, Christian priests from India and Sri Lanka jointly conduct services, drawing pilgrims from both countries.

3. Lack of potable water source– Katchatheevu is not suited for permanent settlement as there is no source of drinking water on the island.

What is the history of the Island?

1. Formation– It originated from volcanic activity during the 14th century.

2. Administration:
a. During the early medieval era, the Jaffna kingdom of Sri Lanka governed it.
b. By the 17th century, control shifted to the Raja of Ramnad (present-day Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu), who owned Katchatheevu island. Later, it became part of the Madras Presidency.

3. Dispute– In 1921, both India and Sri Lanka, at the time British colonies, claimed Katchatheevu in order to determine fishing boundaries.

What is 1974 Indo-Sri Lankan maritime agreement?

1. In 1974, an agreement signed by Prime Ministers Indira Gandhi of India and Sirima R.D. Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka acknowledged Katchatheevu as part of Sri Lanka’s territory, leading to a change in ownership.

2. The agreement allowed Indian fishermen to access Katchatheevu as before, but didn’t settle fishing rights. Sri Lanka understood that Indian fishermen could only access Katchatheevu for resting, drying nets, and visiting the Catholic shrine without needing a visa.

3. Another treaty signed in 1976 restricted fishermen from both nations from fishing in each other’s exclusive economic zones. However, uncertainty about fishing rights has persists till date.

UPSC Syllabus- Geography and Places in news

Source-This post on Record 60 traditional Indian products receive GI tag is based on the article “Over 60 products from across India earn GI tags” published in “The Hindu” on 31st March 2024.

Why in the News?

Recently, over 60 products from across India have been awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) tag. This marks the first instance of such a large number of products being granted the GI tag at once.

Key products awarded the GI tag

What is a GI tag?

1. About- Geographical indication (GI) is a name or sign which is used to identify products originating from a specific geographical location and that location gives it a distinct quality, characteristic.

2. Regulation– The GI tags are governed by the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999. They are issued by the Geographical Indication Registry, which operates under the Department of Industry Promotion and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry.

3. Significance– A geographical indication right enables those who have the right to use the indication to prevent its use by a third party whose product does not conform to the applicable standards.

UPSC Syllabus- Geography & Art & Culture