History and Art & Culture articles in News

History and Art & Culture articles in News for UPSC IAS Prelims 2024

• Art Deco Style

  May 9, 2025

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  News: Art Deco style, first seen at the 1925 Paris Exposition, reached Madras nearly a decade later, after arriving in India through Bombay with the Syndicate Bank building in 1932.

  About Art Deco Style

  

  • It emerged in Western Europe in the 1910s–1920s and flourished in the United States during the 1930s.
  • The name is derived from the 1925 Paris Exposition – Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes.
  • Art Deco blended modernism with luxury and glamour.
  • It symbolized sophistication, wealth, and forward-looking aesthetics, moving away from traditional ornamentation.
  • Key Characteristics:
    • It emphasizes clean lines, geometric shapes, and streamlined forms.
    • Rich use of both natural (ivory, jade, obsidian) and manufactured materials (chrome, Bakelite, ferroconcrete).
    • Stylized ornamentation inspired by nature, classical motifs, and machine-age aesthetics.
    • It features nude female figures, animals, foliage, and sunbursts, rendered in a stylized, abstract manner

  Art Deco in Madras (Chennai)

  • Art Deco was widely adopted in India by banks, insurance firms, cinema halls, film studios, and commercial establishments, symbolizing both modernity and evolving cultural identity.
  • In 1932, Laxman Mahadeo Chitale marked the beginning of Art Deco architecture in the Madras.
  • His notable projects include the Oriental Insurance Building on Armenian Street, the National Insurance Building (1938) on China Bazaar Road, and the Andhra Insurance Building (1939).
  • The Art Deco style also extended to furniture, silverware, and typographic design, shaping the aesthetic of everyday life.

• Piprahwa Relics of Buddha

  May 6, 2025

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  News: Ministry of Culture takes steps to halt auction of Piprahwa relics by Sotheby’s Hong Kong. Piprahwa Relics of Buddha.

  About Piprahwa Relics of Buddha

  

  • These are the Buddha’s relics which were excavated from the Piprahwa Stupa in present-day Uttar Pradesh — widely recognised as the ancient city of Kapilavastu, the birthplace of Lord Buddha.
    • Relics include bone fragments, soapstone and crystal caskets, a sandstone coffer, and offerings such as gold ornaments and gemstones.
  • The Relics were excavated by a British colonial engineer and an estate manager William Claxton Peppé in 1898.
  • An inscription in Brahmi script on one of the caskets confirms these as relics of the Buddha, deposited by the Sakya clan.

  Historical Background of Relics of Buddha

  • At the age of 80, Buddha attained salvation in Uttar Pradesh’s Kushinagar
  • The Mallas of Kushinagar cremated his body with ceremonies befitting a universal king.
  • His relics from the funeral pyre were collected and divided into eight shares to be distributed among the Ajathsatrus of Magadha, the Licchavis of Vaishali, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, Mallas of Kushinagar, Bullies of Allakappa, the Mallas of Pava, the Koliyas of Ramagrama and a Brahmana of Vethadipa.
  • The purpose was erecting stupas over the sacred relics.

• Satavahana Dynasty

  May 5, 2025

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  News: The Satavahana-era inscriptions found in Peddapalli District of Telangana.

  

  About Satavahana Dynasty

  • The Satavahana dynasty was a prominent ancient Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of the Deccan region from the 1st century BCE to early 3rd century AD.
  • Founder: Simuka is regarded as the founder of the Satavahana dynasty.
  • Capital: Pratishthana (Paithan)
  • Expanse: Their kingdom included present-day Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and at times extended into Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
    • It was the first dynasty to build an empire in Daksinapatha—i.e. the southern region.
  • Rise: The dynasty emerged after the decline of the Mauryan Empire, establishing its initial power base in Maharashtra before expanding into Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
  • Important Ruler: They reached their zenith under the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 106-130 AD).
    • He is remembered for his successful campaigns against the Shakas and for restoring the kingdom’s glory after a period of decline.

  About the Inscriptions Found

  • Two inscriptions are found from the Gundaram rock shelter–
    • One inscription is written in early Brahmi script and records that a person of the Hāritiputra lineage — possibly of the Chutu dynasty — excavated a cave for Buddhist monks and describes himself as a friend of Kumāra Hakusiri, a Satavahana prince.
    • Another inscription begins with a trident and damaru — auspicious religious symbols — and states that the land east of the hill belonged to Siri Devarāna.
  • This is the first known occurrence of such religious iconography accompanying early inscriptions in South India, indicating an early association of political authority with symbolic religious elements.

• Vikramaditya I of the Badami Chalukyas

  May 2, 2025

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  News: A rare inscription dating back to the time of Vikramaditya I of the Badami Chalukya dynasty has been unearthed at Madapura Lake in Nyamati taluk of Davangere district. Vikramaditya I of the Badami Chalukyas.

  

  About Vikramaditya I of the Badami Chalukyas

  • He was the son of Pulakeshin II, one of the most illustrious Chalukya rulers.
  • He ruled between 654 and 681 AD.
  • Highlights of his Rule:
    • Period of Instability: After Pulakeshin II’s death, the Chalukya Empire suffered from internal strife and external threats, particularly from the Pallavas, who occupied the Chalukya capital, Vatapi (Badami), for about 13 years.
    • Recapture of Vatapi: His most significant achievement was driving the Pallavas out of Vatapi and reclaiming the Chalukya capital, marking a turning point in the Chalukya-Pallava rivalry.
    • He consolidated the Chalukya kingdom by plundering Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.
  • Titles: He adopted grand titles such as Maharajadhiraja (“king of great kings”), Satyashraya, Rajadhiraja, and Rana-rasika (“lover of war”), reflecting his military prowess and restored sovereignty.

• Raje Raghuji Bhonsle I

  May 1, 2025

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  News: The Maharashtra government has reclaimed the iconic sword of Maratha warrior Raje Raghuji Bhonsle I at an auction in London.

  About Raje Raghuji Bhonsle I

  • Raghuji Bhosale I (also spelt Raghoji Bhonsle) was a Maratha ruler and military commander born in 1695.
  • He played a significant role in the expansion of the Maratha Empire in the 18th century, carving out the Nagpur Kingdom in east-central India under Chhatrapati Shahu I.
  • He hailed from the Hingankar Bhosale clan, and his family had deep roots in Maratha military tradition.
  • His rise started under the mentorship of his uncle Kanhoji Bhosale.
  • Raghuji extended his authority over the Berar and Gondwana regions.
    • He led campaigns in Bengal (1745–1755), and expanded Maratha rule to Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh.
  • The Maratha warrior’s strategic acumen and undeterred ambition earned him the prestigious title of Senasahib Subha from Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.

  Features of his Sword

  

  • The basket-hilt sword has a European-style single-edged blade, which is slightly curved, and two fullers — grooves or channels that run the length of the sword.
  • The spine of the sword is inlaid in gold with an inscription in Devanagari script.
  • The inscription reads Shrimant Raghuji Bhosale Sena Saheb Subah Firang, suggesting that the sword could be ceremonial.
  • Following the 1817 Battle of Sitabuldi, the British East India Company defeated the Nagpur Bhonsles and looted the Bhonsle treasury, including this sword.

• Golconda Blue

  April 30, 2025

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  News: The Golconda Blue diamond – “among the rarest and most important…ever discovered throughout history”, has been expected to fetch $35 million to $50 million at an auction in Geneva on May 14.

  About Golconda Blue

  

  • It is a legendary 23.24-carat fancy vivid blue diamond, renowned for its exceptional clarity, rich blue hue, and royal provenance.
  • Origin: The diamond traces its origin to the famed Golconda mines in present-day Telangana, India, which historically produced some of the world’s most celebrated diamonds, including the Koh-i-Noor, the pale pink Darya-i-Nur and Hope Diamond.
  • It is considered one of the rarest and most valuable diamonds in the world, with an estimated value between $35 million and $50 million.

  Historical Background

  • It belonged to Yeshwant Rao Holkar (1908-62), the Maharaja of Indore, who, along with his wife Sanyogitabai Devi, often collected paintings, jewellery, and other fine goods in Europe.
  • Later, it was commissioned into exquisite jewelry by leading Parisian jewelers, including Chaumet and Mauboussin, and worn by Maharani Sanyogita Devi of Indore in a famous portrait.

  Historical Accounts of Golconda Diamonds

  • The French merchant Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605-89) wrote that diamond mining in the Golconda district grew at an explosive rate in the mid-17th century. At the Kollur mine, 60,000 diggers and washers were employed.
  • The French traveller Jean de Thévenot (1633-77) noted there was no uniformity in diamond prices and the king established a monopoly in mining.
  • The French Catholic physician Gabriel Dellon, who traveled to India in the late 1660s, noted that the Surat is a place of great commerce; diamonds are brought there out of the Kingdom of Golconda.

• Ancient Muziris Port

  April 29, 2025

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  News- Historian MGS Narayanan, a pivotal figure behind the Muziris Heritage Project (MHP), was remembered in the Kerala State Assembly. Ancient Muziris Port.

  

  About Ancient Muziris Port

  Location: It was located on the Malabar Coast in present-day Kerala.

  Historical Period: It was active from around the 1st century BCE to the early medieval period.

  Historical references: It was also mentioned in the writings of Pliny the Elder and in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

  Trade significance: It served as a major international trading port in the Indian Ocean network. It connected South India with Persia, the Middle East, North Africa, and the Mediterranean (notably Greek and Roman civilizations).

  Major exports: It was renowned for its spice trade, especially black pepper, often
  called black gold. Other items of export included semi-precious stones, ivory, pearls,
  etc.

• Bamiyan Buddhas

  April 24, 2025

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  News: Taliban change tune towards heritage sites, including pre-Islamic relics, in Afghanistan.

  About Bamiyan Buddhas

  

  • The Buddhas of Bamiyan were two monumental size statues, standing at 115 and 174 feet tall, carved into the sandstone cliffs of the Bamiyan valley in Hazarajat region of central Afghanistan.
    • The larger of the two statues, represented the Buddha Vairochana.
    • The smaller of the two statues, depicted the Buddha Shakyamuni.
  • They were called Salsal and Shamama by locals.
    • Salsal means “the light shines through the universe”;
    • Shamama is “Queen Mother”.
  • Period: They are said to date back to the 5^th-6^th century AD and were once the tallest standing Buddhas in the world.
  • The site marks the original settlement of Bamiyan as stopping place on the branch of the Silk Route, which linked China and India via ancient Bactria.
  • Cultural confluence: They were great examples of a confluence of the Gupta, Sassanian and Hellenistic artistic styles.
    • These statues best exemplified the Gandharan Buddhist art school.
  • Destruction: In 2001, the Bamiyan statues were systematically destroyed by Taliban using explosives.
  • In 2003, the Bamiyan Valley was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

• Kokborok Language

  April 22, 2025

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  News– The Kokborok Sahitya Parishad has appealed for the inclusion of Kokborok in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Kokborok Language.

  

  About Kokborok Language

  • It is the native language of the Borok people, commonly known as Tripuris.
  • It is spoken as a mother tongue by several indigenous communities such as:
    • Debbarma (Tripuri)
    • Reang, Jamatia, Noatia, Kalai, Rupini, Murasing, and Uchoi.
  • Official Status: Recognised as one of the state languages of Tripura, along with Bengali. It was notified on January 19, 1979.
  • Language Family: Belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family.
  • UNESCO Status: Listed as “Vulnerable” in the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger.

• Gita and Natyashastra in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register

  April 19, 2025

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  News: The Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi hailed the inclusion of the Gita and Natyashastra in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register as a global recognition of our timeless wisdom and rich culture. Gita and Natyashastra in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register.

  

   

  About the Memory of the World (MOW) Program

  • It is a global initiative aimed at preserving, protecting, and enhancing access to documentary heritage, particularly those collections that are rare and at risk.
  • Launch: It was launched by UNESCO in 1992.
  • Memory of the World (MOW) Register: The Register was launched as a core project under the MOW Program aimed at creating a compendium of documents — manuscripts, oral traditions, audio-visual materials, and library and archive holdings — which are of world significance and outstanding universal value.

  India and MOW Register

  • With the inclusion of Gita and Natyashastra, India now has 14 entries in the MOW Register.
  • These include the Rig Veda (added in 2005) and the collective works of the Shaivite philosopher Abhinavagupta (added in 2023), the archives of the first summit meeting of the Non Aligned Movement in Belgrade in 1961 (added in 2023) and the archives of the Dutch East India Company (added in 2003).

  About Natyashastra

  • Traditionally attributed to the sage Bharata, it is an ancient Sanskrit treatise on performing arts.
  • The Naṭyashastra embodies a comprehensive set of rules that define natya (drama), abhinaya (performance), rasa (aesthetic experience), bhava (emotion), sangita (music) in 36,000 verses.

  About Bhagavad Gita

  Traditionally attributed to the sage Vyasa, Bhagavad Gita is a Sanskrit scripture comprising 700 verses that are organised in 18 chapters, embedded in the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic poem Mahabharata.

• Sir Sankaran Nair

  April 16, 2025

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  News: The Prime Minister’s tribute acknowledged Sankaran Nair’s fearless voice against British tyranny on the 106th anniversary of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Sir Sankaran Nair.

  

  About Sir Sankaran Nair

  • He was a prominent Indian jurist, social reformer, and nationalist known for his contributions to the Indian freedom struggle and for advocating civil rights under British rule.

  Early life

  • He was born on 11 July 1857 on the Malabar Coast.
  • He secured the Law degree from the Madras Law College in 1879 and started as a lawyer in 1880 in the High Court of Madras.

  Government services and recognition

  • In 1884, the Madras Government appointed him as a member of the Committee for an enquiry into the state of Malabar.
  • Till 1908, he was the Advocate – General to the Government and an Acting Judge from time to time.
  • In 1908 he became a permanent Judge in the High Court of Madras and held the post till 1915.
  • In 1902, the Viceroy Lord Curzon appointed him Secretary to the Raleigh University Commission.
  • In recognition of his services he was awarded the title ‘Commander of the Indian Empire’ by the King – Emperor in 1904 and was knighted in 1912.

  Achievements during freedom struggle

  • He became a member of the Viceroy’s Council in 1915 with charge of the Education portfolio.
    • As member, he wrote in 1919 two famous Minutes of Dissent in the Despatches on Indian Constitutional Reforms, pointing out the various defects of British rule in India and suggesting reforms.
  • In 1897, when the First Provincial Conference met in Madras, he was invited to preside over it.
  • In 1897, he was elected President of the Indian National Congress, becoming the first Malayali and one of the youngest to hold the post. His leadership reflected constitutionalism rather than populism, privileging civil rights and self-determination.
  • In 1900 he was a Member of the Madras Legislative Council.
  • In 1928 he was the President of the Indian Central Committee to co-operate with the Simon Commission.
    • He advocated for the Dominion Status for India.
    • When the Viceregal announcement came granting Dominion Status as the ultimate goal for India, Nair retired from active politics.

  Death and Recognition

  • He passed away in 1934 at the age of 77, but he remains a symbol of fearless resistance and principled leadership in colonial India.
  • His legacy continues to inspire through books like The Case That Shook the Empire by his descendants and upcoming films like Kesari Chapter 2.

• Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree

  April 7, 2025

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  News: The Prime Minister Modi recently visited the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi temple at the historic city of Anuradhapura. Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree.

  

  About Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree

  • Location: It is situated in the historic city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
  • It is considered the oldest living cultivated plant in the world.
  • It is believed to have grown from a branch of the tree in Bodhgaya (in present-day Bihar) under which Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment.
  • The branch was carried to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitra in 3^rd century B.C., the Mauryan king Ashoka’s daughter and Buddhist nun.
  • Uduvapa Poya: Sanghamitra’s arrival in Sri Lanka with the tree is still celebrated as Uduvapa Poya, an annual festival observed on a full moon night in December.

  About Anuradhapura

  • It is now a UNESCO World Heritage.
  • It was political and religious capital of Sri Lanka that flourished for 1,300 years.
  • It was abandoned after an invasion in 993 CE by the Chola Empire of south India.

  Sanghamitra in Sri Lanka

  • She came on the invitation of the king and the suggestion of her brother, Mahendra or Mahinda.
  • Buddhist missionaries were sent to Sri Lanka after successfully hosting of 3^rd Buddhist Council during the reign of Ashoka.
  • The mission to Sri Lanka was led by prince Mahendra, or Mahinda, Ashoka’s son.
  • Mahinda met King Devanampiya Tissa, whose capital was Anuradhapura, and converted him to Buddhism.

  About Mahabodhi Tree in Gaya

  • While the original tree under which Lord Buddha meditated was destroyed (in some legends, by one of Ashoka’s wives, Tishyarakshita), the existing Pipal tree at the site is believed to have descended from the germplasm (genetic material) of that original tree.

• Kannadippaya

  April 5, 2025

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  News: Kannadippaya recently received Geographical Indication (GI) tag. It is the first tribal handicraft product from Kerala to receive such an honour.

  About Kannadippaya

  

  • Kannadippaya is a traditional tribal handicraft from Kerala.
  • The name Kannadippaya literally means “mirror mat”, which refers to the mat’s unique reflective surface that resembles a mirror. 
  • It is handcrafted from the soft inner layers of reed bamboo, giving it a smooth texture and appealing shine.
  • The mat provides warmth in winter and a cooling effect in summer, making it ideal for use throughout the year. This dual functionality adds to its uniqueness and utility.
  • The craft is mainly practiced and preserved by various tribal communities in Kerala, including the Oorali, Mannan, Muthuva, Malayan, and Kadar tribes. 
  • Also, artisans from the Ulladan, Malayarayan, and Hill Pulaya communities continue to keep this tradition alive.
  • The finest quality Kannadippaya mats are woven using Teinostachyum wightii, a species of reed bamboo. Other bamboo species like Ochlandra sp. are also used in its making.
  • Historically, Kannadippaya held ceremonial value. These mats were often presented to kings by tribal communities as a mark of honour and respect, highlighting their cultural and social significance.

• Sangama Dynasty

  April 3, 2025

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  News: A set of copper plates dating back to early 15th Century from the reign of Devaraya I of the Sangama Dynasty were unveiled by Falcon Coins Gallery with the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Sangama Dynasty.

  

  About Sangama Dynasty

  • Founded by: By two brothers, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I in 1336, who were born into a noble family of the Kakatiya dynasty and named after Sangama, their ancestral village. 
  • The Sangama dynasty was the founding dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire. 

  Important Rulers of the Sangama Dynasty:

  • Harihara I (Deva Raya) 1336-1356: His military successes, diplomatic engagements, religious patronage, and administrative reforms established the empire’s early foundations and its position as a major power in South India.
  • Bukka I 1343-1377: His military exploits contributed to the consolidation and growth of the empire.
  • Harihara II 1377-1404: Extended territory into Tamil Nadu and coastal Andhra.
  • Deva Raya I 1404-1422: Considered one of the empire’s greatest kings. He expanded the empire’s boundaries and brought about significant administrative and economic reforms. Italian traveller Niccolo Conti visited.
  • Deva Raya II 1422-1446: His reign was a period of expansion, cultural renaissance, and administrative reforms for the Vijayanagara Empire. Abdur Razaak visited him.

  Important Characteristics of the Sangama Dynasty: 

  • Administration and governance: Dividing the empire into administrative units called Nadu, which were further divided into smaller units known as Sime or Shasana.
  • Patronage of art and culture: The rulers supported the growth of regional languages like Kannada and Telugu and encouraged scholars, poets, and artists in their courts.
  • Religious tolerance: While being predominantly Hindu, they allowed the practice of other religions within their territories.
  • Economic prosperity: It oversaw a period of economic growth and prosperity.
  • Literary and cultural contributions: Renowned scholars, poets, and philosophers thrived under their patronage.

• Sarhul Festival

  March 31, 2025

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  News- Adivasis in Jharkhand and the broader Chhotanagpur region will celebrate the arrival of the new year and spring season with the Sarhul festival soon.

  

  About Sarhul Festival

  • Sarhul, literally “worship of the Sal tree”, is among the most revered Adivasi festivals. It signifies nature worship and marks the arrival of spring.
  • Sarhul also symbolizes the marriage between the Earth and the Sun.
  • Region & Tribes: It is celebrated in Jharkhand and the Chhotanagpur region by the Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho tribes.
  • Time of celebration: It is observed on the third day of the moon in Chaitra (Hindu calendar), marking the arrival of spring (Phaagun) and continuing till Jeth (June).
  • Religious & Cultural Significance: The festival honors Sarna Maa, the deity residing in Sal trees, at Sarna Sthals (sacred groves).

• Third Battle of Panipat (1761)

  March 27, 2025

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  News- The Chief Minister of Maharashtra described the Third Battle of Panipat as a symbol of Maratha valor during a discussion in the State Assembly. Third Battle of Panipat (1761).

  

  About Third Battle of Panipat (1761)

  • The Third Battle of Panipat, fought on 14 January 1761, was one of the largest and bloodiest battles of the 18th century.
  • Location: Panipat, Haryana – approximately 95 km north of Delhi.
  • Fought between:
    • Marathas: Led by Sadashivrao Bhau and Vishwasrao (son of Nana Saheb).
    • Afghan Coalition: Led by Ahmad Shah Abdali, supported by: Rohilla Afghans (Doab region) and Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Oudh).

  Background After the 27-year Mughal–Maratha war (1680–1707), the Mughal Empire declined rapidly. Peshwa Baji Rao expanded Maratha influence into Gujarat and Malwa. His son, Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb), went further and captured Punjab in 1758, bringing the Marathas into conflict with the Durrani Empire. In 1759, Ahmad Shah Abdali returned to India with a large force and allied with Indian Muslim powers, forming a broad anti-Maratha coalition.

  Key Events Leading to the Battle:

  • August 1760: Marathas captured Delhi.
  • Battle of Kunjpura: Marathas defeated an Afghan garrison.
  • October 1760: Abdali crossed the Yamuna, cutting off Maratha supplies.
  • Prolonged Siege: Food scarcity and starvation weakened the Maratha camp.
  • 13 Jan 1761: Maratha commanders, facing starvation, chose to fight.
  • 14 Jan 1761: The full-scale battle took place and lasted till evening.

  Outcome & Aftermath:

  • Decisive Afghan Victory: Abdali’s forces broke the Maratha lines and claimed a clear win.
  • Massacre of Prisoners: Around 40,000 Maratha prisoners were executed the day after the battle.
  • Heavy Losses: Estimated 60,000–70,000 killed; total fatalities including civilians could have reached 100,000.
  • Impact:
    • Halted Maratha expansion into North India.
    • Led to political instability in Maratha-controlled regions.

  Maratha Revival:

  • Under Peshwa Madhavrao, the Marathas gradually regained strength.
  • In 1771, they launched a northern expedition to re-establish dominance and punish powers who had allied with Abdali.

• Vikramshila University

  March 26, 2025

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  News– The government is planning the revival of another ancient center of learning in Bihar—Vikramshila University.

  

  About Vikramshila University

  • Location:- It was located in Bhagalpur, Bihar, along the banks of the Ganges River.
  • Founder: It was established by King Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty in the late 8th to early 9th century AD. It was founded to address the declining academic standards of Nalanda University.
  • Significance:
    • Vikramshila became a major center for Tantric and Vajrayana Buddhism, playing a crucial role in propagating these traditions.
    • Unlike Nalanda, which had a more comprehensive curriculum, Vikramshila was known for its emphasis on tantric and and occult studies.
    • Under King Dharmapala’s rule, Vikramshila exerted considerable influence over Nalanda, showcasing its prominence in academic and administrative matters.
    • With an enrollment of over 1,000 students and 100 teachers, the university attracted scholars from different parts of India and beyond.
    • It produced notable scholars, including Atisa Dipankara, who played a key role in spreading Buddhism in Tibet.
  • Features:
    • The university featured a central stupa surrounded by 208 cells, which served as living quarters for student-monks engaged in study and meditation.
    • It housed a well-equipped library with an innovative cooling system that used water from a nearby reservoir to protect delicate manuscripts.
    • The academic curriculum covered diverse subjects, including theology, philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, logic, and tantras.
  • Decline: It was destroyed by the forces of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji around 1193.

• PEPSU Muzhara Movement

  March 20, 2025

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  News- March 19 commemorates the anniversary of the PEPSU Muzhara movement, a significant agrarian struggle in Punjab. PEPSU Muzhara Movement.

  

  About PEPSU Muzhara Movement

  • It was an agrarian struggle led by landless tenant farmers (muzharas) in Punjab.
  • It aimed at land ownership rights against feudal landlords (biswedars).
  • It was originated in the 1930s, intensified post-independence in PEPSU (Patiala and East Punjab States Union).

  About Muzharas They were tenant farmers forced to share one-third of produce with landlords. They were originally small landowners, but lost land under British policies. They were oppressed by the feudal system controlled by biswedars.

  • Key Events and March 19 significance
    • March 1949: Biswedars attempted to reclaim land in Kishangarh village, but were met with strong resistance.
    • March 17, 1949: A confrontation led to the death of a Patiala police officer, resulting in the arrest of 35 muzharas. All were acquitted in February 1950 due to the movement’s sustained efforts.
    • March 19, 1949: The Patiala administration sent the army to suppress the resistance. The confrontation led to the killing of four muzharas, making March 19 a symbol of the struggle.
    • 1953 Onwards: March 19 was annually observed to honor the movement’s martyrs.
  • Geographical Spread- It covered 784 villages across Patiala, Barnala, Mansa, Sangrur, Bathinda, Mohali, Fatehgarh Sahib, Faridkot, and Jind (Haryana).
  • Key Leaders– Jagir Singh Joga, Buta Singh, Teja Singh Sutantar, Sewa Singh Thikriwala, Bhai Jodh Singh – mobilized and led resistance.

• Kamba Ramayana

  March 20, 2025

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  News– The Ministry of Culture has launched a comprehensive initiative to preserve and promote Kamba Ramayana recitals in Tamil Nadu. Kamba Ramayana.

  

  About Kamba Ramayana

  Overview
  The Kamba Ramayana, also known as Ramavataram, is a Tamil rendition of the Sanskrit Valmiki Ramayana. It stands out for its poetic brilliance and spiritual insights deeply rooted in Tamil culture.

  Authorship and Patronage
  This epic was composed by the renowned Tamil poet Kambar in the 12th century CE. His work was patronized by Thiruvennai Nallur Sadayappa Vallal, whose name appears every 1,000 verses as a mark of gratitude.

  Historical and Cultural Significance

  • Period: Written in the 12th century CE.
  • Regional Connection: Strongly linked to Tamil Nadu, particularly Kambar’s birthplace, Kambar Medu in Therazhundur.
  • Language: Classical Tamil, reflecting the region’s devotion and literary traditions.
  • Composition Structure:
    • Organized into 6 Kandams (books) and 113 Padalams (sections)
    • Contains approximately 10,569 verses
    • Integrates Tamil folk traditions with deep philosophical themes

  Traditional and Contemporary Influence

  • The Kamba Ramayana is traditionally recited by the Kamba Ramayana Mandali in temples.
  • Efforts are ongoing to revive its oral tradition through government and cultural initiatives.

  About Kambar: The Poet Behind the Epic

  Who Was Kambar?
  Kambar, often hailed as Kavichakravarthy Kamban (Emperor of Poets), was a distinguished Tamil poet known for composing the Ramavataram. His literary genius enriched Tamil literature with spiritual and ethical narratives.

  Life and Era

  • Birthplace: Therazhundur, in present-day Mayiladuthurai district, Tamil Nadu.
  • Period: Estimated to have lived between 1180 CE – 1250 CE.
  • Kingdom: Flourished under the Chola Empire, during the reign of Kulothunga III.
  • Influences: Lived after Vaishnavite philosopher Ramanuja, whom he referenced in his writings.

  Major Works and Contributions

  • Kamba Ramayanam: A Tamil adaptation of the Ramayana, blending classical poetry with rich cultural and spiritual depth.
  • Other Literary Contributions:
    • Tirukkai Valakkam – Ethical and moral verses
    • Erelupatu & Silai Elupatu – Spiritual compositions
    • Kangai Puranam – Temple-centric mythological text
    • Sadagopar Antati & Saraswati Antati – Devotional poetry

• Menhir and Megalithic Burial Sites

  March 18, 2025

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  News: The Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs, ancient standing stones in Telangana’s Narayanpet district, dating back around 3,500 to 4,000 years, have been included in India’s tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Menhir and Megalithic Burial Sites.

  

  About Menhirs

  • Menhirs are large, upright standing stones, often uncarved, placed individually or in groups.
  • Purpose: Used for burial, religious, astronomical, or territorial purposes.
  • Historical Significance: Dating back to the Neolithic and Bronze Age, menhirs are among the earliest forms of human monumental architecture.
  • Astronomical Importance: Some menhirs align with celestial events such as solstices and equinoxes, indicating ancient astronomical knowledge.
  • Material & Size: Generally made of locally available stone; sizes vary from a few feet to over 20 feet tall.
  • Geographical Spread: They are found across Europe, Asia, and Africa, with notable examples in France (Carnac), the UK (Stonehenge), and India (Mudumal, Telangana).

  About Megalithic Burial Sites

  • A megalith is a large stone used in the construction of a monument or structure, either independently or in combination with other stones.
  • The tradition of constructing such monuments began primarily during the Neolithic Age and continued through the Chalcolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages.
  • Archaeologists date the majority of India’s megaliths to the Iron Age (1500 BC to 500 BC), with some sites tracing back as early as 2000 BC.
  • Megalithic structures are found worldwide and can be categorized into two main types:
    • Polylithic Type – Constructed using multiple stones such as Dolmens, Cairn, Cromlech and Cist. 
    • Monolithic Type – Comprising a single stone such as Menhir and Stone Circle
      

  About Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs

  • The Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs are ancient standing stones in Narayanpet district, Telangana.
  • They are about 3,500 to 4,000 years old.
  • The site is one of the largest megalithic burial grounds in South India.
  • It has nearly 80 tall menhirs and around 3,000 smaller stones.
  • These stones are arranged in a special way. Some of them align with the sun during solstices and equinoxes. One stone even shows the earliest known star constellation (Ursa Major) in South Asia.
  • Local people believe the stones are sacred. They have linked them to folk traditions and worship.

• UNESCO Tentative List

  March 17, 2025

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  News: India has added six new properties to its UNESCO Tentative List on March 7, 2025. With these additions, India now has 62 sites on the tentative list. UNESCO Tentative List

  

  About UNESCO Tentative List

  • The UNESCO Tentative List is an official inventory of sites that a country intends to nominate for inclusion in the World Heritage List.
  • It serves as a preliminary step in the nomination process, allowing State Parties to identify and prepare potential heritage sites for future consideration.
  • A site must be listed on the Tentative List before it can be officially nominated for UNESCO World Heritage status.

  Newly Added Sites

  1. Kanger Valley National Park (Chhattisgarh)
     • It is located in the Bastar region of Chattisgarh.
     • This park is known for its dense forests, biodiversity, and limestone caves like Kotumsar and Kailash caves.
     • It is home to unique flora and fauna, including the Bastar Hill Myna, which is the state bird of Chhattisgarh.
  2. Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs (Telangana)
     • It is a site containing prehistoric megalithic structures, mainly menhirs (upright stones) that were likely used for ritualistic or astronomical purposes.
     • These structures date back to the Iron Age and provide insights into early funerary practices and social structures.
  3. Ashokan Edict Sites along the Mauryan Routes (Multiple States) (Serial Nomination)
     • It includes several sites where Emperor Ashoka’s edicts were inscribed on rock surfaces and pillars, promoting Dhamma (Buddhist principles).
     • These sites spread across Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Karnataka, reflecting Mauryan governance and Buddhist teachings.
  4. Chausath Yogini Temples (Multiple States) (Serial Nomination)
     • These are unique circular-shaped temples that house 64 Yoginis (female deities) and are often located on hilltops.
     • They reflect Tantric traditions, Shakti worship, and intricate stone carvings, found in states like Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh.
  5. Gupta Temples in North India (Multiple States) (Serial Nomination)
     • These temples, dating back to the Gupta Empire (4th-6th century CE), showcase early Hindu temple architecture.
     • Known for their shikhara (towers), intricate carvings, and structural precision, they represent a golden age of art and culture in India.
  6. Palace-Fortresses of the Bundelas (Madhya Pradesh & Uttar Pradesh)
     • Grand fortified palaces built by the Bundela Rajputs in places like Orchha, Datia, and Chanderi.
     • These structures exhibit a mix of Rajput and Mughal architecture, featuring intricate frescoes, chhatris (domed pavilions), and water systems.

• Global Engagement Scheme

  March 12, 2025

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  News– The Global Engagement Scheme was recently discussed in the Lok Sabha, where the Union Minister for Culture and Tourism, provided details about its implementation. Global Engagement Scheme

  

  About Global Engagement Scheme

  • Nodal Ministry– Ministry of Culture
  • The Scheme aims to promote India’s rich cultural heritage internationally and enhance India’s global image.
  • It was previously known as the Scheme for promotion of International Cultural Relations.
  • This scheme is designed to strengthen India’s cultural ties with foreign nations, promote bilateral cultural contacts, and project India’s cultural identity on the world stage.
  • It also encourages inbound tourism by showcasing Indian art and traditions globally.
  • Major Components: The scheme is administered through Indian Missions Abroad and consists of three major components:
    • Festival of India – A platform for Indian artists to perform internationally.
    • Grant-in-Aid to Indo-Foreign Friendship Cultural Societies – Financial assistance to foreign cultural societies that promote Indian culture.
    • Contribution Grant to International Organizations – Funds allocated to international cultural organizations of which India is a member.

• Jalantheeswarar Temple (Thiruvooral)

  March 11, 2025

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  News: The Jalanatheswarar Temple at Thakkolam is in a deteriorating condition and needs restoration.

  About Jalantheeswarar Temple (Thiruvooral)

  

  • Jalantheeswarar Temple, also known as Thiruvooral, is a revered Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • It is located in Thakkolam, a village in Vellore district, Tamil Nadu.
  • In this temple, Shiva is worshipped in the form of a Lingam under the name Jalantheeswarar, while his consort Parvati is known as Giriraja Kannikambal.
  • This temple is classified as a Paadal Petra Sthalam, as it is mentioned in the Tevaram, the 7th-century Tamil Saiva canonical work composed by the Nayanar saints.
  • The temple is believed to have been originally built by the Pallavas and later expanded during the Chola period.
  • The temple has four inscriptions from the 10th and 11th centuries, which provide details about women engaged in temple activities.
  • Architectural Features: The temple complex spans approximately 1.5 acres, featuring a three-tiered gopuram (gateway tower) and concentric granite walls. The main sanctum houses the deity Jalantheeswarar in the form of a lingam made of sand.

• Juanga Tribe

  March 5, 2025

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  News: The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) has requested an action taken report from the district magistrate-cum-collector of Keonjhar regarding alleged human rights violations of the Juanga tribe, which is classified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) in the district.

  

  About Juanga Tribe

  • The Juanga tribe is a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) in Odisha.
  • The Juang tribe primarily inhabits the hills of Keonjhar, Pallahara in Anugul, and the plains of Dhenkanal in Odisha.
  • The tribe is divided into two groups: Hill Juang (Thaniya) and Plain Juang (Bhagudia).
  • The Juanga people speak the Juanga language, which belongs to the Munda language family.
  • Historically, they were known as Patuas because they wore skirts made from leaves, but in modern times, they prefer wearing clothing purchased from local markets.
  • The mandaghar, or youth dormitory, is an important cultural structure in Juang villages, serving as a gathering place for the community.
  • The Juang perform Changu dances, which take place in front of the mandaghar.
  • Their primary occupations include shifting cultivation, hunting, gathering forest produce, and occasional wage labor. Some Juangas practice subsistence agriculture, growing crops like millet, pulses, and vegetables.
  • Handicrafts and bamboo products are also part of their traditional economy.

• Amir Khusrau

  March 1, 2025

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  News: Amir Khusrau, the legendary 13th-century Sufi poet and musician, is in the news due to Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s participation in the 25th edition of Jahan-e-Khusrau, an annual Sufi music festival held in his honor. 

  

  About Amir Khusrau

  • He was born in 1253, likely in Patiyali, Etah district, Uttar Pradesh. 
  • Amir Khusrau is credited with developing qawwali, a devotional form of Sufi music that continues to be performed at Sufi shrines today. 
  • He played a crucial role in shaping Indian classical music, influencing styles like khayal and tarana. 
  • He is also said to have invented the sitar and tabla, though historical evidence for this claim is debated. 
  • Additionally, he contributed to the development of several ragas that remain integral to Indian classical music.
  • Amir Khusrau was one of the earliest writers to use Hindavi, a language that later evolved into modern Hindi and Urdu. 
  • His works blended elements of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and local Indian dialects, making them accessible to a wide audience. 
  • He also popularised riddles, proverbs, and folk songs in Hindavi, which are still enjoyed today.
  • He served as a court poet under five Delhi Sultans, including Muizuddin Qaiqabad, Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji, Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah, and Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
  • He wrote extensively in Persian, the official language of the Delhi Sultanate, as well as in Hindavi. 
  • Amir Khusrau was a devoted disciple of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, one of the most revered Sufi saints of India. 
  • He wrote favourably about Hindu philosophical thought in his Persian masnavi Nuh Siphir and composed folk songs that resonated with people of all faiths.
  • Some of his most famous compositions include “Chhaap Tilak,” “Zehal-e-Miskeen,” and “Sakal Ban Phool Rahi Sarson,” which are still performed in Sufi gatherings and Bollywood films. 

• Cholanaikkan Tribe

  February 28, 2025

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  News: The innovative initiative by Samagra Shiksha Kerala (SSK) to provide education to a bed-ridden tribal girl from the Cholanaikkan tribe in Malappuram, Kerala, has made headlines.

  About Cholanaikkan Tribe

  • The Cholanaikkan are a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) living in the forests of Kerala, India.
  • They are primarily found in the Nilambur forests of Malappuram district and are considered one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes in South India.
  • They traditionally live in rock shelters and caves called Kallu Arais.
  • They rely on hunting, and gathering honey, tubers, and wild fruits for sustenance.
  • The community speaks a distinct Dravidian language called Cholanaikkan.
  • They have minimal contact with the outside world and depend heavily on forest resources.

• Chandra Shekhar Azad

  February 28, 2025

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  News: Chandra Shekhar Azad is in the news as February 27, 2025, marked the anniversary of his martyrdom.

  About Chandra Shekhar Azad (1906–1931)

  • He was a revolutionary freedom fighter who played a crucial role in India’s struggle for independence against British rule.
  • He was born on July 23, 1906, in Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh.
  • He was deeply influenced by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and joined the Non-Cooperation Movement at a young age.
  • When he was arrested, he boldly declared his name as “Azad” (Free) in court and was sentenced to 15 lashes as punishment.
  • On February 27, 1931, he was cornered by British police in Alfred Park, Allahabad.
  • Instead of surrendering, he fought valiantly and ultimately shot himself with his last bullet, fulfilling his vow to never be captured alive.

  Key Contributions to the Freedom Struggle

  • Joining the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) (1924): Chandra Shekhar Azad became a member of the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), which was led by Ram Prasad Bismil. He played a key role in raising funds for revolutionary activities, often through political dacoities.
  • Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Azad was involved in the infamous Kakori Train Robbery, in which revolutionaries looted a British train carrying treasury money.
  • Reorganizing HRA into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) (1928): In 1928, Azad, along with Bhagat Singh and other revolutionaries, transformed the HRA into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Under this new identity, the organization embraced socialist ideology and aimed to overthrow British rule through armed resistance.
  • Assassination of John Saunders (1928): Azad and his comrades planned the assassination of James A. Scott, the British police officer responsible for the attack on Lala Lajpat Rai, who had died due to police brutality. However, due to mistaken identity, they ended up killing John Saunders instead.
  • Attempt to Blow Up Lord Irwin’s Train (1929): In an attempt to assassinate Viceroy Lord Irwin, Azad and his comrades planned to blow up his train. However, the plan ultimately failed.

• Soliga Tribe

  February 26, 2025

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  News: Prime Minister Narendra Modi praised the Soligas in his Mann Ki Baat program for their role in tiger conservation.

  

  About Soliga Tribe

  • The Soliga tribe primarily inhabits the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) Tiger Reserve in Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka.
  • They are also found in parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
  • In 2011, the Soligas were the first tribal community in India to have their forest rights legally recognized within a tiger reserve.
  • The Soligas communicate in Sholaga, a Dravidian language, as well as Kannada and Tamil.
  • The Soligas have a deep-rooted cultural connection with the forest and wildlife.
    • Soligas possess extensive knowledge of medicinal plants and forest ecology which helps in conservation efforts.
  • They worship tigers, referring to them as “Dodda Nayi” (Big Dog) and have a temple dedicated to them.
  • Their lifestyle is simple, sustainable, and eco-friendly.
  • They reside in simple, single-room huts made of bamboo and mud. They create distinctive utility items from natural materials, including the ‘jottai,’ a cup crafted from leaves.
  • Role in Conservation:
    • The Soligas coexist with wildlife and contribute significantly to tiger conservation in BRT Tiger Reserve.
    • Their sustainable harvesting methods ensure that natural resources are shared with animals.
    • They assist the Forest Department in fire prevention and habitat protection.

• Battle of Karnal

  February 25, 2025

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  News: The Battle of Karnal on February 24, 1739, was a pivotal moment in the history of the Mughal Empire.

  

  About Battle of Karnal (1739)

  • The Battle of Karnal, fought on February 24, 1739, was a decisive conflict between the Persian emperor Nadir Shah and the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Rangila.
  • By the early 18th century, the Mughal Empire was in decline due to administrative inefficiencies, economic strain, and constant internal revolts.
  • Meanwhile, Nadir Shah of Persia, a brilliant military strategist, had consolidated power in Iran and launched expansionist campaigns.
  • After conquering Kandahar in 1738, he invaded India through the Khyber Pass, rapidly overcoming Mughal territories and advancing toward Delhi.

  The Battle & Its Result

  • At Karnal (present-day Haryana), the vastly superior 300,000-strong Mughal army, including war elephants and heavy cavalry, faced Nadir Shah’s 55,000 well-trained Persian troops.
  • Despite their numbers, the Mughals suffered a devastating defeat within three hours, due to outdated battle tactics and superior Persian firepower.
  • Muhammad Shah was captured, and Nadir Shah proceeded to plunder Delhi, looting its treasures, including the Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond.
  • He also ordered a brutal massacre of thousands of civilians.
  • While Nadir Shah eventually restored Muhammad Shah to the throne, the Mughal Empire never recovered from this humiliation.
  • The treasury was emptied, and Mughal authority became largely symbolic, paving the way for the rise of regional powers and, eventually, British domination in India.

• Tea Horse Road 

  February 25, 2025

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  News: Recently, China’s Ambassador to India, Xu Feihong, shared a post on X about the historic Tea Horse Road, a trade route spanning over 2,000 km that connected China to India through Tibet.

  About Tea Horse Road 

  

  • It is an ancient trade route connecting China to India via Tibet. It spanned over 2,000 km, passing through challenging mountainous terrain.
  • The Tea Horse Road was not a single route but rather a network of interconnected paths that originated in southwest China and extended to the Indian subcontinent.
  • The two primary routes traversed cities such as Dali and Lijiang in Yunnan province before reaching Lhasa in Tibet. From there, they branched out into present-day India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
  • These routes have elevations as high as 10,000 feet.
  • It dates back to the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). Buddhist monk Yijing (7th century) documented early trade on this route.
  • It initially facilitated trade in sugar, textiles, rice noodles, Tibetan gold, and herbs. By the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE), it became focused on tea and horses.

  Economic & Cultural Importance

  • Tea Trade: Tibetans highly valued tea, using it as food and currency.
  • Horse Trade: China needed Tibetan horses for military and transport.
  • Cultural Exchange: Facilitated trade in medicine, textiles, and religious ideas.
  • Contributed to the development of Lijiang as a major trade hub.

• Ajit Singh- Indian Freedom Fighter

  February 24, 2025

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  News: On February 23, 2021, Pagri Sambhal Diwas was established to honor Ajit Singh’s contributions and recognize the continuing struggles of farmers.

  About Ajit Singh

  

  • Ajit Singh (born February 23, 1881) was the younger brother of Sardar Kishan Singh and the uncle of Shaheed Bhagat Singh.
  • Ajit Singh played a key role in the Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement (1907) which was peasant agitation against the oppressive Colonisation and Doab Bari Acts, which denied land ownership to farmers.
  • He was a powerful orator and he addressed 19 of 33 protest meetings in Punjab. His speech in Rawalpindi on April 21, 1907, was deemed seditious, leading to his arrest on June 2, 1907, alongside Lala Lajpat Rai.
  • Both were deported to Mandalay prison under Regulation III of 1818.
  • Released after six months, he attended the Surat Congress session and founded the Bharat Mata Society, promoting Indian independence.
  • He later established the Bharat Mata Book Agency, which published anti-British literature, attracting scrutiny from the colonial government.
  • To evade British persecution, Ajit Singh moved to Iran and later Paris, where he founded the Indian Revolutionary Association. He met Lenin, Trotsky, and Mussolini while forging global alliances for India’s freedom.
  • In 1913, he moved to Brazil and collaborated with the Ghadar Party and worked alongside revolutionaries such as Bhai Rattan Singh, Teja Singh Swatantra, and Baba Bhagat Singh Bilga.
  • In 1932, he returned to Europe and contributed to the Azad Hind Fauj in Italy, attempting to recruit Indian soldiers.
  • He was captured by Allied forces in 1945, he was imprisoned in Italy and Germany until December 1945.
  • As India neared independence, he was released from the jail.

• Dokra Artwork

  February 14, 2025

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  News: Prime Minister Narendra Modi gifted an exquisite Dokra sculpture to French President Emmanuel Macron during his visit to France in February 2025.

  About Dokra Artwork

  •  Dokra artwork is an ancient and celebrated form of metal casting that originated in India over 4,000 years ago. 
  • It is known for its rustic charm and intricate detailing, this art form continues to thrive, particularly in regions like Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Odisha. 
  • Dokra art is a bridge connecting India’s present with its tribal heritage. It reflects the harmony between humans and nature, the richness of folk traditions, and the creative spirit of indigenous artisans.
  • It is globally admired for its unique aesthetics and the use of a time-honoured technique called the lost-wax casting process.
  • Dokra pieces often depict tribal life, nature, animals, deities, and musicians. Each artwork tells a story:
    • Musicians and Dancers: Symbolize the central role of music and celebration in tribal culture.
    • Animals like Elephants and Horses: Represent power, prosperity, and reverence for nature.
    • Deities: Reflect indigenous spiritual beliefs and cultural practices.

  Distinctive Features of Dokra Art

  • Handcrafted Uniqueness: No two pieces are identical, making each work a one-of-a-kind creation.
  • Earthy, Antique Look: The rustic finish and natural imperfections add to the aesthetic charm.
  • Tribal Essence: The motifs and patterns are deeply rooted in the everyday life and folklore of tribal communities.

• Fort William Renamed as Vijay Durg

  February 12, 2025

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  News: In a significant move towards eliminating colonial influences in the Indian Armed Forces, Fort William, the Eastern Command Headquarters of the Indian Army in Kolkata, has been officially renamed Vijay Durg.

  Historical Significance of Fort William

  • Originally constructed by the British in 1781, Fort William was named after King William III of England.
  • It has served as a strategic military base for over two centuries and continues to be a key command center for India’s Eastern Army Command.
  • The fort played a crucial role in British colonial rule, symbolizing their military presence in eastern India.

  About Renaming of Vijay Durg

  • The new name, Vijay Durg, draws inspiration from the historic fort in Maharashtra, which was a naval base for the Marathas under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
  • Vijay Durg Fort, located along the Sindhudurg coast, was a stronghold of Maratha naval supremacy, representing Indian resilience and military strength.
  • Renaming Fort William to Vijay Durg signifies a shift towards Indian heritage and military pride over colonial legacy.

  Other Renaming Initiatives at Fort William

  • Kitchener House inside Fort William has been renamed Manekshaw House, after Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, India’s first Field Marshal and hero of the 1971 Indo-Pak war.
  • South Gate, previously called St. George’s Gate, has been renamed Shivaji Gate, honoring Chhatrapati Shivaji’s legacy.

• Dashavatar Theatre

  February 11, 2025

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  News: The centuries-old traditional theatre form Dashavatar, performed in Maharashtra’s Sindhudurg district and parts of north Goa, is in the spotlight as it continues to preserve its cultural essence despite changing times.

  About Dashavatar Theatre

  

  • Dashavatar is a traditional folk theatre form performed in Maharashtra’s Sindhudurg district and parts of north Goa.
  • The art form has been practiced for over 800 years and continues to be a key part of local temple festivals (jatras).
  • This theatre originated in Maharashtra, possibly influenced by Karnataka’s Yakshagana.
  • It was initially performed only by Brahmins, later taken up by the Devli community to keep the tradition alive.
  • It is performed between October (post-harvest) and May.
  • Stories are based on the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas, featuring Vishnu’s ten incarnations. It includes humor, music, and moral lessons to engage audiences.
  • Comic interludes (Bharud or Vidhushak) provide entertainment while subtly addressing social issues.
  • A unique feature of Dashavatar is that men play both male and female characters.
  • It requires mastery of feminine mannerisms, expressions, and voice modulation.
  • The performers use traditional makeup techniques, often learned through experience.
  • Costumes include the nauvari (nine-yard sari), heavy jewelry, and wigs. Actors carry props like dolls when playing motherly roles.

• Gyan Bharatam Mission

  February 5, 2025

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  News: Recently, the Union Budget 2025-26 has introduced the ‘Gyan Bharatam Mission’.

  

  About Gyan Bharatam Mission

  • The Gyan Bharatam Mission has been launched to conduct a comprehensive survey, documentation, and conservation of India’s rich manuscript heritage. 
  • It aims to cover over one crore manuscripts spread across academic institutions, museums, libraries, and private collections.
  • A significant aspect of the Gyan Bharatam Mission is the establishment of the National Digital Repository of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS). 
  • This digital platform will serve as a comprehensive resource for archiving and sharing traditional wisdom, making it accessible to researchers, students, and institutions worldwide.
  • By integrating India’s ancient knowledge—spanning fields such as Ayurveda, mathematics, astronomy, linguistics, and philosophy with modern education and technology, the mission aims to encourage research, innovation, and sustainable development.

• Lezim dance

  January 28, 2025

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  News– The upcoming Bollywood film Chhava, depicting the life of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, has stirred controversy over a scene showing the Maratha king performing the Lezim dance.

  About Lezim dance

  

  • It is traditional folk dance of Maharashtra.
  • It is named after the lezim, a wooden stick with jingling metallic cymbals used by dancers.
  • The dance involves vigorous and rhythmic steps involving squatting, jumping, and group formations.
  • Occasions:
    • It is performed during festivals (e.g., Ganesh Chaturthi), marriage processions, and cultural events.
    • It is also practiced widely in schools as a form of physical exercise.
  • Features:
    • Energy and Synchronization: Dancers perform in circles or groups, gradually increasing pace with drum beats (dhol or dhalgi).
    • Cultural Identity: Symbolizes community spirit and is often associated with Maratha pride.
    • Martial Connection: Rooted in physical drills from akhadas (traditional gymnasiums).
  • Historical Significance-Shivaji Maharaj’s Influence: Promoted during his reign as a military exercise for maintaining fitness and discipline among soldiers.

• Etikoppaka toys

  January 28, 2025

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  News– On India’s 76th Republic Day, Andhra Pradesh’s tableau, featuring the 400-year-old Etikoppaka Bommalu wooden toy-making tradition, mesmerized the audience at New Delhi’s Kartavya Path.

  

  About Etikoppaka toys

  • Etikoppaka toys are traditional toys made by artisans of Etikoppaka village located on the banks of Varaha River in Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh.
  • These toys are made from the wood of the Ankudu tree (Wrightia tinctoria), which is lightweight, soft, and ideal for intricate carvings.
  • The toys are known for its rounded design with no sharp edges, ensuring safety for children.
  • They are colored using natural dyes derived from seeds, roots, leaves, and bark.
  • They are finished with a lacquer-turning technique, giving the toys a smooth, glossy, and durable finish.
  • Cultural and Historical Significance:
    • Designs often depict mythological characters, animals, household items, and musical instruments, reflecting India’s cultural heritage.
    • Some motifs are inspired by ancient civilizations like Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.
  • Geographical Indication (GI) Tag: It was awarded the GI tag in 2017. 

  Other GI tagged toys in India

  Toy Name	State	Key features
  Channapatna Toys	Karnataka	Crafted from ivory wood; lacquer-coated and colored with natural dyes.
  Thanjavur Dolls	Tamil Nadu	Known as “Thanjavur Thalaiyatti Bommai”; oscillating dolls made of terracotta.
  Nirmal Toys	Telangana	Hand-carved wooden toys with traditional gold-painted designs.
  Kondapalli Toys	Andhra Pradesh	Made from softwood (Tella Poniki); depict mythological themes and rural life.

• Iron Age in India

  January 25, 2025

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  News: Recent dating of burial urn samples from Sivagalai in Tamil Nadu’s Tuticorin district suggests that the Iron Age may have begun there around 3,345 BCE, at least 1,000 years earlier than previously believed.

  

  About Iron Age

  • Iron Age Overview:
    • A transformative period in history when iron replaced stone and bronze as the primary material for crafting tools and weapons.
    • Marked by significant advancements in metallurgy and technology, leading to profound societal and economic changes.
  • Timeframe:
    • The Iron Age is generally considered to have begun around 1200 BCE globally.
    • However, recent findings in Tamil Nadu suggest the Iron Age in India began as early as 3,345 BCE, predating the Hittite Empire’s use of iron (around 1380 BCE)

  • Notable Sites in India:
    
    • Sivagalai (Tamil Nadu): This site holds the earliest evidence of iron use in India, dating back to 3,345 BCE.
    • Mayiladumparai (Tamil Nadu): Evidence of iron tools from around 2,172 BCE.
    • Brahmagiri (Karnataka): Iron Age artifacts found here date to about 2,140 BCE.
    • Gachibowli (Telangana): Iron Age evidence from around 2,200 BCE.

  Phases of the Iron Age in India:

  1. Early Iron Age (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE)

  • Introduction of Iron Tools: Iron tools began to be used in agriculture and hunting.
  • Overlap with the Late Vedic Period: This phase coincided with the late Vedic period, during which texts like the Atharvaveda were composed.
  • Notable Sites:
    • Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh)
    • Malhar (Chhattisgarh)
    • Hallur (Karnataka)

  2. Middle Iron Age (1000 BCE – 600 BCE)

  • Expansion of Iron Technology: Iron technology expanded, leading to greater use of iron tools and weapons.
  • Urbanization: The growth of urban centers and the rise of fortified settlements.
  • Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture: The PGW culture emerged in the Ganga-Yamuna plains.
  • Rise of Janapadas: Early states or political entities, known as Janapadas, began to form.
  • Key Sites:
    • Kausambi (Uttar Pradesh)
    • Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh)

  3. Late Iron Age (600 BCE – 200 BCE)

  • Formation of Mahajanapadas: The rise of larger political entities known as Mahajanapadas.
  • Mauryan Empire: The establishment and expansion of the Mauryan Empire, marking the height of political unity and power.
  • Religious Growth: The spread of Buddhism and Jainism, alongside Ashoka’s edicts, promoting governance based on ethical principles.
  • Major Urban Centers:
    • Pataliputra (Patna)
    • Ujjain

• Kalaripayattu

  January 23, 2025

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  News: The relegation of Kalaripayattu to the demonstration section of the 38th edition of the National Games has sparked off a political storm. 

  About Kalaripayattu

  

  • It is one of the oldest and most scientific martial art forms in the world based on the ancient knowledge of the human body. 
  • It originated in Kerala. Myths credit the warrior sage Parasurama with establishing Kalarippayattu.  
  • The term Kalaripayattu is combination of two Malayalam words: Kalari (meaning training ground) and Payattu (meaning training of martial arts). 
  • The martial art involves 4 stages: 
    • Maippayattu- It is the body conditioning phase where the person is taught to prepare their body for a fight. 
    • Kolthari- In the second stage, a person is taught attack and self-defence with the help of wooden weapons. 
    • Angathari- In this stage, sharp metal objects are introduced after the person overcomes the fear of fighting with wooden weapons. 
    • Verumkai- Research based bare hand fighting is emphasised in this stage to teach students body anatomy. The purpose is to make the person aware of what points they can hit and what they cannot. 
  • There are two types of Kalaripayattu: 
    • Northern: In comparison to the southern type, more weapons are used, and all movements are in straight line- forward and backward. 
    • Southern: The participants can move in any direction while practicing it. 
  • It is said that Kalarippayattu was introduced in China by Bodhidharma in the 5th century AD. 
  • The martial art was added to the National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of India in 2009. 

• Ratnagiri Buddhist Site

  January 22, 2025

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  News: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has uncovered remarkable Buddhist remains during fresh excavations at the historic Ratnagiri site in Jajpur district.

  

  About Ratnagiri Buddhist Site

  • Location– It is located 100 km northeast of Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
  • It is part of the famous Diamond Triangle of Odisha along with Udaygiri and Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri – translated as the ‘Hills of Jewels’.
  • The site stands on a hill between Birupa and Brahmani rivers and is Odisha’s most famous — and the most excavated – Buddhist site.
  • It was a center for Mahayana and Tantrayana (also known as Vajrayana) Buddhism.
  • Time frame– Experts date Ratnagiri to a period spanning the 5th to 13th centuries, with its peak construction activity occurring between the 7th and 10th centuries.
  • Ratnagiri was an important center of Buddhism in ancient times.
    • Some studies suggest that the famous Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler, Hiuen Tsang, who visited Odisha in 638-639 AD, may have visited Ratnagiri.

  Buddhism in Odisha and its connections with Southeast Asian nations

  • Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is believed to have invaded Kalinga in 261 BC but, deeply moved by the bloodshed in the war, he eventually embraced Buddhism. Later, he helped spread Buddhism not only within his own empire but also to Sri Lanka, as well as Central and Southeast Asia.
  • In Odisha, Buddhism is stated to have particularly flourished under the Bhaumakara dynasty, which ruled parts of the state in between the 8th and 10th Century.
  • Odisha has had strong maritime and trade connections with Southeast Asia for a long time. Historians note that goods like pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, silk, camphor, gold, and jewelry were commonly traded between the ancient kingdom of Kalinga and Southeast Asia.
  • The state also annually holds Baliyatra, literally ‘voyage to Bali’ – a seven-day festival to commemorate the 2,000-year-old maritime and cultural links between Kalinga and Bali and other South and Southeast Asian regions such as Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

• Konark Sun Temple

  January 20, 2025

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  News: Recently, Singapore’s President visited the world heritage site of Sun Temple at Konark. 

  About Konark Sun Temple

  

   

  • The temple was built by King Narasimha Deva I of the Ganga Dynasty in the 13th century as a tribute to the Sun God. 
  • It represents the architectural brilliance of the Kalinga temple architecture. 
  • The Sun Temple was constructed in the sea to give the appearance of the Sun God rising from the water at dawn. 
  • The temple was referred to as Black Pagoda by the European sailors due to the perception of the temple’s roof being dark. 
  • It comprises several distinct and well-organized spatial units like  jahamogana (audience hall), Natya Mandap (dance hall), Bhoga Mandap (dining hall). 
  • The original temple had a vimana that fell in 1837. 
  • The temple was fashioned like the Sun God’s chariot, which was drawn by seven horses and had twenty-four carved wheels. 
    • The wheels are designed in a way that one can gauge the time of the day by looking at the shadow cast on the spoke of the wheels by the sun.  
    • The 24-spoke Konark wheel has also been incorporated into India’s national flag.  
    • The wheel’s circular motion represents time (Kalachakra) as well as development and ongoing change in the cosmos. 
  • The temple was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. 

• Kumbh Mela

  January 15, 2025

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  News: Maha Kumbh Mela is being held in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. It is a celebration of spirituality, religion and equality. 

  About Kumbh Mela

  

  • The word Kumbh is derived from Sanskrit word Kumbh which means pitcher or pot. 
  • It is believed that during the Samudra manthan event, churning of the ocean, a pot (Kumbh) of Amrit was brought forth.  
  • When the pot of Amrit was being taken away from the Asuras, the drops spilled in 4 different locations around India. 
  • These 4 locations- Haridwar, Prayagraj, Ujjain, and Nashik-Trimbakeshwar- became the places where Kumbh Mela takes place. 
  • These holy places are located on the banks of rivers 
    • Haridwar-  Ganga River 
    • Prayagraj- Sangam of Ganga, Yamuna, and mythical Saraswati 
    • Ujjain- Kshipra River
    • Nashik-Trimbakeshwar- Godavari River
  • The location of Kumbh Mela is decided based on the relative positions of the Sun, the Moon and Jupiter. 
  • Types of Kumbh: 
    • Magh Mela: It is an annual fair that attracts people from all over India.  
    • Ardh Kumbh: It comes once every 6 years. 
    • Purna Kumbh: It comes once every 12 years. 
    • Mahakumbh: It is believed to come only once every 144 years, and after the completion of 12 Purna Kumbhs. 

• Indus Valley Script

  January 6, 2025

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  News: Tamil Nadu Chief Minister has announced a prize money of $1 million for experts or organisations that are successful in deciphering the scripts of Indus Valley Civilisation. 

  About Indus Valley Script 

  

  • Evolution:  
    • During the early Harappan phase (3500-2700 BCE), the earliest examples of script signs are found on Ravi and Kot Diji pottery excavated at Harappa. 
    • During the urban period (2600-1900 BCE), the script was fully developed, and longer inscriptions were recorded. 
  • Though the script remains undeciphered, experts say that it was not alphabetical as it had too many signs, ranging from 375 to 400. 
  • The script was written from right to left (Boustrophedon Style). This is evident as some seals show a wider spacing on the right and cramping on the left. 
  • Evidence of writing has been found on a variety of objects including seals, copper tools, jewelry, terracotta tablets etc. 
  • The script was pictographic and contained iconographic motifs like realistic pictures of animals.

  Key attempts to decipher the Indus Valley Script  1932- Flinders Petrie attempted to decipher the script based on supposed similarity of pictographic principles between Indus Valley Script and Egyptian hieroglyphs.  Early 1970s- Iravatham Mahadevan found that an average inscription contained five symbols and longest inscription contained only 14 symbols in single line, establishing the direction of writing being from right to left.  1982- SR Rao argued for a Sanskrit based decipherment of script. He traced the gradual changes in the Harappan script from a picture cum linear script to a purely linear one.

• Sree Narayana Guru

  January 3, 2025

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  News: The remarks of Kerala Chief Minister, at the inaugural session of the 92nd Sivagiri pilgrimage, on Sree Narayana Guru have set off a controversy. 

  About Sree Narayana Guru 

  

  • He was a saint, philosopher, social reformer who advocated social equality and spiritual enlightenment. 
  • He was born in  Chempazhanthy, a village near Thiruvananthapuram, in the Ezhava family. 
  • He coined the famous slogan “One Caste, One Religion, On God”, emphasising on the idea of universal brotherhood. 
  • He was associated with Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam, which has played a key role in promoting socio-political reforms in Kerala. 
  • He launched the Aravipuram Movement on Shivaratri day of 1888 by installing a Shivalinga at Aravipuram, symbolising resistance against social injustice. 
  • He has also authored several literary works like Daiva Dasakam, Atmavilasam, Brahmavidya Panchakam etc. 

• Srisailam Temple

  December 30, 2024

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  News: The Archaeological Survey of India has discovered several copper plates and other ancient inscriptions at the Srisailam Temple, Andhra Pradesh. 

  About Srisailam Temple 

  

  • Location:
    • It is located on the top of Nallamala Hills in Andhra Pradesh. 
    • It lies on the bank of the river Krishna. 
  • History: 
    • The inscriptional evidence date back the temple to 2nd century BCE, during the reign of the Satavahana King 
    • It has received patronage from various dynasties like Chalukyas, Kakatiyas, Vijayanagara Empire, Qutb Shahis. 
  • Religious Significance:   
    • The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, who is worshipped as Mallikarjuna Swamy and is represented by the lingam. While Goddess Parvati is worshipped as Brahamaramba Devi. 
      • Thus, the temple is also known as Sri Brahamaramba Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple.  
    • It is sacred to devotees of both Shaivism and Shaktism as it houses one of the 12 Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva and is one of the 18 Shakti Peethas. 
  • Architecture:
    • It is built in the Dravidian style, featuring lofty towers and sprawling courtyards.  
    • The temple houses many halls, the most notable being the Mukha Mandapa built during the Vijayanagar period. 

• 1924 Belagavi Session of Indian National Congress

  December 27, 2024

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  News: The 100th Anniversary of the historic 1924 Belagavi Session is being celebrated in Belagavi, Karnataka. 

  About the Belagavi Session 

  

  • It was the 39th session of the INC which took place on December 26-27, 1924, in Belagavi, Karnataka. 
  • The session was presided over by Mahatma Gandhi, marking the only time he served as the Congress President. 
  • The session saw participation by several Congress leaders including Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Sarojini Naidu, and Khilafat movement leaders Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Shaukat Ali, among others.  

  Significance 

  • Focus on Self Reliance: The use of Khadi symbolised Gandhi’s vision for a self-reliant India. Khadi was a means for India to break free from her economic dependence on British textiles. Thus, he urged the masses to take up spinning and weaving Khadi. 
  • Communal Harmony: Gandhi considered communal harmony to be pre-requisite for freedom and unity of India. He believed that all human beings deserve equal respect, irrespective of religion. 
  • Organisational Reforms: Gandhi attempted to widen the base of the movement by reducing the membership fees by 90%, paving the way for greater participation of the masses. 

• Yuga Yugeen Bharat National Museum

  December 20, 2024

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  News: The Ministry of Culture has partnered with France Museums Développement (FMD) to develop the Yuga Yugeen Bharat National Museum as part of the Central Vista Redevelopment Project. 

  About Yuga Yugeen Bharat National Museum 

  

  • The museum was first announced by the Prime Minister at the International Museum Expo in May 2023. 
  • It will redefine the cultural experience by celebrating diversity, fostering inclusivity and bridging the past, present and future. 
  • It will deepen India-France cultural cooperation and involves collaboration on feasibility study, museum case studies, interpretive planning and buidling programming. 
  • The collaboration leverages France’s expertise in museum management and design to breathe new life into the historic North and South Blocks. 
  • It will be developed through Adaptive Reuse, highlighting India’s commitment to sustainability. 

• Potti Sriramulu

  December 16, 2024

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  News: The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu, reaffirmed the government’s commitment to establishing a Telugu University named after Potti Sriramulu.

  About Potti Sriramulu

  

  • He was an Indian freedom fighter known for his pivotal role in the creation of Andhra State.
  • He was bestowed with the title ‘Amarajeevi‘ for his supreme sacrifice for the cause of the people of Andhra.
  • He was born on March 16, 1901, in the Madras Presidency, now part of Nellore, Andhra Pradesh.
  • He is remembered for his commitment to social justice and the upliftment of Dalits.
  • Freedom struggle contribution:
    • He was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi to join the freedom struggle.
    • He was actively participated in significant movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922), Salt Satyagraha (1930), and Individual Satyagraha (1941-42).
    • He was arrested by the British during the Quit India Movement in 1942 and jailed along with Gandhiji.
  • Post independence:
    • He began a hunger strike on October 19, 1952, demanding Andhra Pradesh’s formation from the Madras Presidency.
    • After 58 days of fasting, he died on December 15, 1952, in Mylapore.
    • His sacrifice led to the announcement of Andhra Pradesh on December 19, 1952, with statehood granted on November 1, 1956.
  • Socio-religious activities:
    • He was involved in the village reconstruction programmes at Rajkot in Gujarat.
    • He also joined Gandhi ashram (established by Yerneni Subrahmanyam) in Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh.
    • He undertook three fasts to support Dalit (Harijan) entry rights to holy places including Venu Gopala Swamy Temple in Moolapeta, and Nellore.

• Abathsahayeswarar Temple

  December 14, 2024

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  News: The Abathsahayeswarar temple has been selected for the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Awards for Cultural Heritage Conservation. 

  About Abathsahayeswarar Temple 

  

  • The temple is in Thukkatchi in Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu. 
  • It is 1,300-year-old and was constructed by Kings Vikrama Chola and Kulothunga Chola. 
    • Kulothunga established an idol for Sarabeshwarar, which is the reason this deity is called Aadhi Sarabeshwarar. 
  • The temple houses numerous deities like Soundaryanayaki Ambal, Pillayar, Murugan etc. 
  • The temple has been restored using traditional and modern conservation techniques. 

  Asia-Pacific Awards for Cultural Heritage Conservation  Initiated by UNESCO in 2000.  Recognises the efforts of individuals and organisations in Asia and Pacific in restoring, conserving, and transforming structures of heritage value.  The objective is to protect cultural heritage sites.

• Subramania Bharati

  December 13, 2024

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  News: Prime Minister has released the compendium of complete works of Mahakavi Subramania Bharati on his 143rd birth anniversary.

  About Subramania Bharati

  

  • He was a poet, freedom fighter, journalist, social reformer from Tamil Nadu.
  • He was given the title of Mahakavi on account of being a pioneer of modern Tamil poetry.
  • He started his career in journalism with Swadesamitran and was also associated with newspapers like The Hindu, Bala Bharata etc.
  • He emphasised on women empowerment, opposed caste system and child marriage and advocated socio-religious reforms.
  • His notable works are Kuyil Pattu, Panchali Sabatham, Kannan Pattu etc.