Biology and diseases

Statement 1 is correct. The leishmaniases are a group of diseases caused by protozoan parasites from more than 20 Leishmania species. These parasites are transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected female phlebotomine sandfly, a tiny – 2–3 mm long – insect vector.
The most common forms are cutaneous leishmaniasis, which causes skin sores, and visceral leishmaniasis, which affects several internal organs (usually spleen, liver, and bone marrow).
Some people have a silent infection, without any symptoms or signs. People who develop clinical evidence of infection usually have fever, weight loss, enlargement (swelling) of the spleen and liver, and abnormal blood tests.
Statement 2 is incorrect. If not treated, severe (advanced) cases of visceral leishmaniasis typically are fatal.
# To recognize the significant contributions towards defining the survival tactics of Leishmania donovani, Society of Biological Chemists (India) has chosen Dr Susanta Kar, Senior Scientist, CSIR-CDRI for this year’s Prof.A N Bhaduri Memorial Lecture Award.

: Statement 1 is correct. Cancer is the name given to a collection of related diseases. In all types of cancer, some of the body’s cells begin to divide without stopping and spread into surrounding tissues.
Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways that allow them to grow out of control and become invasive. One important difference is that cancer cells are less specialized than normal cells. That is, whereas normal cells mature into very distinct cell types with specific functions, cancer cells do not. This is one reason that, unlike normal cells, cancer cells continue to divide without stopping.
In addition, cancer cells are able to ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or that begin a process known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis, which the body uses to get rid of unneeded cells.
Statement 2 is incorrect. National pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) regulates the prices of all Drugs as per the Drug Price Control Order (DPCO) 2013.
It fixes the Ceiling Price of scheduled formulations as per the list of medicines specified in the National List of Essential Medicines (NLEM) which are included in the First Schedule of Drug Pricing Control Order (DPCO), 2013.
First Schedule of DPCO, 2013 also includes select drugs used for the treatment of cancer. However, there has been a long standing felt need to further regulate the Non Scheduled segment also where high markups have led to arbitrary pricing practices.

Aptameters are oligonucleotide or peptide molecules that bind to a specific target molecule. Aptamers can be classified as: DNA or RNA aptamers consisting of (usually short) strands of oligonucleotides and Peptide aptamers consisting of one (or more) short variable peptide domains, attached at both ends to a protein scaffold.
These the artificial single-stranded DNA or RNA sequences (or peptides) fold into secondary and tertiary structures making them bind to certain targets with extremely high specificity.
# Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi, has initiated the research with support from the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) under DST on the covid-19 detection kit, which can be stored under less stringent conditions.
Scientists are working on detecting a target spike protein using bioinformatics tools. The kit will use aptamer (a biosensor) to detect SARS-Co-V2.

Contaminated water and poor sanitation are linked to transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio.
Diarrhoea is the most widely known disease linked to contaminated food and water but there are other hazards. In 2017, over 220 million people required preventative treatment for schistosomiasis – an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms contracted through exposure to infested water.
In 2017, 71% of the global population (5.3 billion people) used a safely managed drinking-water service – that is, one located on premises, available when needed, and free from contamination.
In 2010, the UN General Assembly explicitly recognized the human right to water and sanitation.
# Data Source: World Health Organisation Website.

Statement 1 is correct. Glanders is an infectious disease that is caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Though not common, people have gotten glanders from sick animals. People who are in close contact with animals that have glanders are more likely to get the disease than those who are not.
# In the past, the germs that cause glanders, the bacteria called Burkholderia mallei, have been used as a biological weapon during wars.

Option 1 and 2 are correct. Passive immunity is the transfer of antibody produced by one human or another animal to another. Passive immunity provides protection against some infections, but this protection is temporary.
-The most common form of passive immunity is that which an infant receives from its mother. Antibodies are transported across the placenta during pregnancy. As a result, a full-term infant will have the same antibodies as its mother. These antibodies will protect the infant from certain diseases for up to a year.
-Many types of blood products contain antibody. Some products (e.g., washed or reconstituted red blood cells) contain a relatively small amount of antibody and some (e.g., intravenous immune globulin and plasma products) contain a large amount which is used for antibody transfusion.

Option 3 is incorrect. Active immunity is stimulation of the immune system to produce antigen-specific humoral (antibody) and cellular immunity. Unlike passive immunity, which is temporary, active immunity usually lasts for many years, often for a lifetime.
-One way to acquire active immunity is to survive infection with the disease-causing form of the organism.
-Another way to produce active immunity is by vaccination. Vaccines interact with the immune system and often produce an immune response similar to that produced by the natural infection, but they do not subject the recipient to the disease and its potential complications.

All of the above statements are correct.
The immune system uses several tools to fight infection. Blood contains red blood cells, for carrying oxygen to tissues and organs, and white or immune cells, for fighting infection. These white cells consist primarily of macrophages, B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes:
Macrophages are white blood cells that swallow up and digest germs, plus dead or dying cells. The macrophages leave behind parts of the invading germs called antigens. The body identifies antigens as dangerous and stimulates antibodies to attack them.
B-lymphocytes are defensive white blood cells. They produce antibodies that attack the antigens left behind by the macrophages. Each B cell produces a single species of antibody, each with a unique antigen-binding site.
T-lymphocytes are another type of defensive white blood cell. There are two major types of T cells: the helper T cell and the cytotoxic T cell. As the names suggest helper T cells ‘help’ other cells of the immune system, whilst cytotoxic T cells kill virally infected cells and tumors.

Both statements are correct.
There are four types of influenza viruses: A, B, C and D. Human influenza A and B viruses cause seasonal epidemics of disease (known as the flu season) almost every year.

Influenza A viruses also are found in many different animals, including ducks, chickens, pigs, whales, horses and seals.
Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N).

Influenza type C infections generally cause mild illness and are not thought to cause human flu epidemics. Influenza D viruses primarily affect cattle and are not known to infect or cause illness in people.

: Statement 1 is incorrect. The SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus.
An RNA virus is a virus that has RNA (ribonucleic acid) as its genetic material. RNA viruses replicate their genomes using virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp).The RNA may be either double- or single-stranded.

Statement 2 is correct. The SARS-COV-2 has spike proteins which binds with the Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on cell membranes in human body.

Both statements are correct.
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder caused when the body doesn’t make enough of a protein called hemoglobin, an important part of red blood cells.
When there isn’t enough hemoglobin, the body’s red blood cells don’t function properly and they last shorter periods of time, so there are fewer healthy red blood cells traveling in the bloodstream.
People with thalassemia may have mild or severe anemia because Red blood cells carry oxygen to all the cells of the body and when there are not enough healthy red blood cells, there is also not enough oxygen delivered to all the other cells of the body..

Statement 1 is correct. Adenoviruses are common viruses that cause a range of illness. They can cause cold-like symptoms, fever, sore throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, diarrhea, and pink eye (conjunctivitis).

Adenoviruses usually spread from infected people to others through: close personal contact such as touching or shaking hands, the air by coughing and sneezing, touching objects or surfaces with adenoviruses on them then touching your mouth, nose, or eyes.

Statement 2 is correct. Vectors are viruses that have had the gene responsible for replication removed. Therefore, they no longer pose any threat of infection. Adenoviral vectors are considered safe, and are some of the easiest to engineer.

Scientists use vectors to transport genetic material from a different virus -the one that is being vaccinated against -into a human cell.

Sputnik V uses two types of adenoviral vectors — Ad5 and Ad26 — in the COVID-19 vaccine. In this way, they trick the body, which has developed immunity against the first type of vector and boost the effectiveness of the vaccine with the second shot using a different vector.

Oxford University and China’s Cansino Biologics are also using Adenovirus vector for developing COVID-19 vaccine.

The case-fatality rate is the proportion of persons with a particular condition (cases) who die from that condition.

The overall case-fatality rate of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection is around 35%.

Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks.

The case-fatality ratio of SARS is estimated to range from 0% to more than 50% depending on the age group affected, with an overall CFR estimate of approximately 15%. A global case-fatality ratio of 11% was recorded at the end of the outbreak (2003).

COVID-19 fatality rate has been hovering significantly below 5% globally. India’s CFR has been reported to be around 2%.

Both statements are correct.

Sickle Cell Disease is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders.

Healthy red blood cells are round, and they move through small blood vessels to carry oxygen to all parts of the body. In someone who has SCD, the red blood cells become hard and sticky and look like a C-shaped farm tool called a “sickle”.

The sickle cells die early, which causes a constant shortage of red blood cells. Also, when they travel through small blood vessels, they get stuck and clog the blood flow. This can cause pain and other serious problems such infection, acute chest syndrome and stroke.

Option 1 is correct. Thalassemia is an inherited (passed from parents to

children through genes) blood disorder caused when the body doesn’t make enough of a

protein called hemoglobin, an important part of red blood cells.

When there isn’t enough hemoglobin, the body’s red blood cells don’t function properly and

they last shorter periods of time, so there are fewer healthy red blood cells traveling in the

bloodstream.

Option 2 is correct. Sickle Cell Disease is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders.

Healthy red blood cells are round, and they move through small blood vessels to carry

oxygen to all parts of the body. In someone who has SCD, the red blood cells become hard

and sticky and look like a C-shaped farm tool called a “sickle”.

The sickle cells die early, which causes a constant shortage of red blood cells. Also, when

they travel through small blood vessels, they get stuck and clog the blood flow. This can

cause pain and other serious problems such infection, acute chest syndrome and stroke.

# Second phase of “Thalassemia Bal Sewa Yojna” for the underprivileged Thalassemic

patients was launched recently. It is a Coal India CSR funded Hematopoietic Stem Cell

Transplantation (HSCT) program that aims to provide a one-time cure opportunity for

Haemoglobinopathies like Thalassaemia and Sickle Cell Disease for patients who have a

matched family donor.

Statement 1 is correct. Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) is a tickborne virus (genus Phlebovirus, family Phenuiviridae) that can cause a mild to severe febrile illness similar to hemorrhagic fever.

SFTS is characterized by acute high fever, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, elevated serum hepatic enzymes, gastrointestinal symptoms, and multiorgan failure.

Statement 2 is incorrect. Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) illness was first confirmed in China in 2009. It was retrospectively identified in South Korea in 2010 and the western regions of Japan in 2013.

Recently the disease has killed seven and infected at least 60 in China.

Both statements are correct.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) ACE2 is a protein on the surface of many cell types. It is an enzyme that generates small proteins – by cutting up the larger protein angiotensinogen.

ACE2 is present in many cell types and tissues including the lungs, heart, blood vessels, kidneys, liver and gastrointestinal tract. It is present in epithelial cells, which line certain tissues and create protective barriers.

The SARS-CoV-2 virus binds to ACE2, using the spike-like protein on its surface, prior to entry and infection of cells. Hence, ACE2 acts as a cellular receptor for the virus that causes COVID-19.

Statement 1 is correct. Convalescent plasma, extracted from the blood of

patients recovering from an infection, is a source of antibodies against the infection. The

therapy involves using their plasma to help others recover.

Statement 2 is correct. Blood is a specialized body fluid. It has four main components:

plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Plasma is the largest part of your blood. It, makes up more than half (about 55%) of its

overall content. When separated from the rest of the blood, plasma is a light-yellow liquid.

Plasma carries water, salts and enzymes.

The main role of plasma is to take nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of the

body that need it. Cells also put their waste products into the plasma. The plasma then

helps remove this waste from the body. Blood plasma also carries all parts of the blood

through your circulatory system.

Statement 1 is correct. Hepatitis C is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis

C virus (HCV): the virus can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, ranging in severity

from a mild illness lasting a few weeks to a serious, lifelong illness. Hepatitis C is a major

cause of liver cancer.

Statement 2 is correct. The hepatitis C virus is a bloodborne virus: the most common

modes of infection are through exposure to small quantities of blood. This may happen

through injection drug use, unsafe injection practices, unsafe health care, transfusion of

unscreened blood and blood products, and sexual practices that lead to exposure to blood.

# This year’s Nobel Prize winners in Medicine; Harvey J. Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles

1. Rice made seminal discoveries that led to the identification of a novel virus, Hepatitis C

virus.

The National Viral Hepatitis Control Program was launched by Ministry of

Health and Family Welfare on the World Hepatitis Day, 28th July 2018.

It is an integrated initiative for the prevention and control of viral hepatitis in India to achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3.3 which aims to ending viral hepatitis by 2030.

Statement 1 is correct.

Aim of the program:

– Combat hepatitis and achieve country wide elimination of Hepatitis C by 2030;

– Achieve significant reduction in the infected population, morbidity and mortality associated with Hepatitis B and C viz. Cirrhosis and Hepato-cellular carcinoma (liver cancer);

– Reduce the risk, morbidity and mortality due to Hepatitis A and E.

Statement 2 is correct. Components of NVHCP: Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment,

Monitoring and Evaluation, Surveillance and Research; and Training and Capacity

Building

Hepatitis A is usually a short-term infection. Hepatitis B and hepatitis C can also begin as

short-term infections, but in some people, the virus remains in the body and causes chronic

(long-term) infection. There are vaccines to prevent hepatitis A and hepatitis B; however,

there is no vaccine for hepatitis C.

Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. When the liver is inflamed or damaged, its function can be affected. The common hepatitis viruses are hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus.

Hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C are liver infections caused by three different viruses. Although each can cause similar symptoms, they are spread in different ways and can affect the liver differently

The presence of the Cat Que virus has been largely reported in Culex

mosquitoes in China and in pigs in Vietnam.

The domestic pigs are considered to be the primary mammalian hosts for CQV.

CQV belongs to the Simbu serogroup and infects both humans and economically important

livestock species. Humans can get infected through mosquitoes as well.

# In a study published in July in the Indian Journal of Medical Research, scientists from the

Pune-based Maximum Containment Laboratory and ICMR-National Institute of Virology have

noted the presence of antibodies against the Cat Que virus (CQV) in two human serum

samples.

A disease is said to be in Community transmission stage when there is no clear source of origin of the infection in a new person/community. It can no longer be identified who became infected after being exposed to someone, who interacted with infected people.

The source and chain of infections can no longer be established. Therefore, contact tracing becomes difficult and has limited use in arresting the spread of disease.

# Herd immunity occurs when a large portion of a community becomes immune to a disease, making the spread of disease from person to person unlikely. This can happen in two ways:

1. Many people contract the disease and in time build up an immune response to it (natural immunity)
2. Many people are vaccinated against the disease to achieve immunity.

Immunogenicity is the ability of a foreign substance, such as an antigen, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human or other animal. It is the ability to induce a humoral and/or cell-mediated immune responses.

Antigenicity is the ability to be specifically recognized by the antibodies generated as a result of the immune response to the given substance.

Statement 1 is correct. Trans fats are a byproduct of a process called hydrogenation that is used to turn healthy oils into solids and to prevent them from becoming rancid.

Statement 2 is incorrect. Trans fats raise the bad (LDL) cholesterol levels and lower good (high-density lipoprotein) HDL cholesterol levels. Eating trans fats increases risk of developing heart disease and stroke. It’s also associated with a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

# World Food Day is observed on Oct. 16 and this year’s theme is Grow, Nourish, sustain.

Vitamin A is involved in immune function, vision, reproduction, and cellular communication. Two forms of vitamin A are available in the human diet: preformed vitamin

A (retinol and its esterified form, retinyl ester) and provitamin A carotenoids.

Concentrations of preformed vitamin A are in liver and fish oils, milk and eggs, which also include some provitamin A. Most dietary provitamin A comes from leafy green vegetables, orange and yellow vegetables, tomato products, fruits, and some vegetable oils.

# Three out of four rural Indians cannot afford a nutritious diet, according to a paper recently published in journal Food Policy.

The highly infectious variant of SARS-COV-2 that has been reported to have emerged in south-east England that is spreading rapidly to the rest of the UK and is already present elsewhere in the world.

The World Health Organisation said its Evolution Working Group is working closely with the UK medical authorities to understand how the variant, now called B.1.1.7, is likely to affect the course of the pandemic. It has been detected in the Netherlands, Denmark and Australia.

Scientists say two aspects of B.1.1.7 give cause for concern. One is the unprecedented number of mutations it carries. The other is the speed with which it is supplanting other strains of the Sars-Cov-2 virus in south-east England.

A mutation is a change in a DNA sequence. Mutations can lead to changes in the structure of an encoded protein or to a decrease or complete loss in its expression.

–When a cell divides, it makes a copy of its DNA — and sometimes the copy is not quite perfect. That small difference from the original DNA sequence is a mutation.

— Mutations can also be caused by exposure to specific chemicals or radiation. Ultraviolet (UV) light has strong genotoxic effects to produce DNA damage, induce mutations, and, in the worst case, cause the development of tumors.

Both statements are correct.

The FNCAS9 Editor-Limited Uniform Detection Assay (FELUDA) test is a paper strip test for diaagnosis of SARS-COV-2.

It uses CRISPR-Cas technology for the detection of genes specific to SARS-CoV-2 virus.

In this method, a protein called FnCas9 and a guide RNA (gRNA) which helps in recognising the viral genes is used. If the patient sample has the viral gene, this gRNA-FnCas9 complex binds to the gene and using a paper strip this binding can be visualised.

Statement 1 is correct. Members of the coronavirus family have sharp bumps that protrude from the surface of their outer envelopes. Those bumps are known as spike proteins. They’re actually glycoproteins. That means they contain a carbohydrate (such as a sugar molecule).

Statement 2 is correct. Spike proteins play an important role in how these viruses infect their hosts. S proteins can change shape to interact with a protein on the surface of human cells. Those spike proteins latch the virus onto a cell. This allows them to get entry into those cells.

Without the S protein, viruses like the novel SARS-CoV-2 would not be able to interact with the cells of potential hosts like animals and humans to cause infection. As a result, the S protein represents an ideal target for vaccine and antiviral research endeavors.

A new variant of SARS- CoV 2 virus [Variant Under Investigation (VUI)-20212/01] also referred to as B.1.1.7 has been reported by the Government of United Kingdom (UK) to World Health Organization (WHO).

This variant is estimated by European Center for Disease Control (ECDC) to be more transmissible and affecting younger population. This variant is defined by a set of 17 changes or mutations. One of the most significant is an N501Y mutation in the spike protein that the virus uses to bind to the human ACE2 receptor. Changes in this part of the spike protein may result in the virus becoming more infectious and spreading more easily between people.

The new variant known as 501Y.V2 was discovered through routine surveillance by a network of laboratories in South Africa.

South Africa reported last week that scientists have found a new genetic mutation which might be responsible for the recent surge in Covid-19 cases in South Africa.

The new variant has multiple changes in the spike protein, the part of the virus that binds to cells inside the human body and that is also the main target for many of the antibodies produced during infection or after vaccination. Scientists have isolated one particular mutation – N501Y, common to both the new UK variant and that from South Africa – which they believe is important to its ability to spread fast.

Statement 1 is correct. Shigella bacteria cause an infection called shigellosis. Most people with Shigella infection have diarrhea (sometimes bloody), fever, and stomach cramps. Symptoms usually begin 1–2 days after infection and last 7 days.

Shigella is very contagious. People get infected with shigella when they come in contact with and swallow small amounts of bacteria from the stool of a person who is infected with shigella.

Statement 2 is correct. Children under age 10 are most likely to get shigella infection but it can occur at any age.

# Recently, several cases of the Shigella infection have been reported in North Kerala.

Keratinocytes are the primary type of cell found in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin.

 In humans they constitute 90% of epidermal skin cells.

 Basal cells in the basal layer (stratum basale) of the skin are sometimes referred to as basal keratinocytes.

 By using an indigenously developed hydrogel made of a polymer (polyacrylamide) in lieu of the conventional plastic tissue culture plates, researchers at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay have been able to achieve many-fold increase in the number of skin cells (keratinocytes) cultured in the lab.

• Unlike traditional methods, no feeder layer or drug is needed when cells are grown on the hydrogel substrate.

The “G Finder survey” is often seen in news is related

It is encouraging that India was reported to be the fourth largest funder of research and development (R&D) in neglected diseases as per the G Finder Survey which tracks global investments in R&D for the neglected diseases.

 This reflects the government’s commitment towards addressing the innovation problem in neglected diseases.

 Neglected diseases are mostly tropical infectious diseases, and the market size for drugs for such diseases is small due to their limited geographical incidence.

 To highlight the common problem of lack of innovation for drugs, diagnostics and vaccines for this basket of diseases, WHO started addressing these as neglected diseases from late 1980s.

 Some examples of neglected diseases are malaria, tuberculosis, leishmaniasis (kala azar), dengue, leprosy, lymphatic filariasis and diarrhoeal diseases.

NOTE: These diseases face an innovation deficit as they are neglected in R&D efforts of the pharmaceutical industry.

 However, it is not just the neglected diseases in the developing world that face this innovation deficit.

 Several rare diseases that affect the developed markets are called “orphan diseases.”

 These are called orphans because the pharmaceutical industry does not find it profitable to develop and market products intended for only a small number of patients suffering from rare diseases.

Acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) is a serious public health problem in India. It is characterized as acute-onset of fever and a change in mental status (mental confusion, disorientation, delirium, or coma) and/or new-onset of seizures in a person of any age at any time of the year.

 The syndrome most commonly affects children and young adults and can lead to considerable morbidity and mortality.

 Viruses are the main causative agents in AES cases, although other sources such as bacteria, fungus, parasites, spirochetes, chemicals, toxins and noninfectious agents have also been reported over the past few decades.

 In May-June 2019, the acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) in Bihar’s Muzaffarpur, Vaishali, Sheohar and East Champaran districts has so far claimed the lives of over 100 children.

 More than 400 children with AES have been admitted to various hospitals. Most of the deaths have been attributed to low blood sugar level (hypoglycaemia).

 In Bihar, convulsions in children (which is AES) are found in combination with hypoglycaemia.

Japanese Encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne viral infection of the brain. There is, however, a debate about the origin of the disease and whether it is enteroviruses — caused by virus found in pigs and birds. There is no cure for JE.

 The efficacy of the JE vaccine is between 85-90%. The lessons learnt from polio vaccination drives is that people left out of each round of vaccination are the most disenfranchised, most likely to take ill and least likely to seek medical care in time.

 One hundred and ninety positive cases of Japanese Encephalitis (JE) have been reported and 49 people have died of the vector-borne disease in Assam since January 2019 to June 2019.

 Assam is an ecologically favorable region for the spread of JE due to heavy rainfall, large paddy fields and water bodies and pig farming almost throughout the State.

 Pigs act as amplifying host for the JE virus transmitted through culex mosquito, as do wading birds such as herons and egrets.

A virus named after Kampung Sungai Nipah, a village in Malaysia, where it was first discovered in 1998-99.

 According to the World Health Organization (WHO) Nipah is Zoonotic Virus. “A zoonosis is any disease transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans.”

 It could be caused by a virus, bacteria, fungi or parasite; some examples include anthrax, bird flu, ebola, dengue, rabies, malaria, swine flu and leptospirosis.

 Nipah is believed to be transmitted from what are called flying foxes, or mega bats, so called because they are the largest bat species. They eat fruits and live in trees.

 These are a part of the old-world fruit bat family, called pteropid bats. Bats often end up being reservoirs for a number of severe infectious diseases, including Ebola, SARS coronavirus, Nipah and Hendra.

 Nipah is an RNA or Ribonucleic Acid virus. “RNA viruses are the most common cause of emerging diseases in humans, attributable to the high mutation rate in RNA viruses compared to DNA viruses,” says the book Essential Human Virology.

 Nipah belongs to a genus (category, in layperson speak) called the Henipavirus; the Hendra virus, also found on pteropid bats, belongs to this category too.

 The virus, which is classified as Bio-safety Level 4, meaning that it is highly infectious and needs a maximum containment facility, can be confirmed by an ELISA, RT-PCR or Serum Neutralization Test.

 The incubation period is anywhere between 5-14 days, but it can soon affect the respiratory and nervous system and patients can go into delirium or coma. Unfortunately, there is no definite treatment, except intensive supported care.

On September 3 (2019), Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Thailand became the first four countries in the World Health Organization’s south-east Asia region to have successfully controlled hepatitis B. The virus is said to be controlled when the disease prevalence is reduced to less than 1% among children less than five years of age.

Bats serves as natural hosts for numerous viruses including Ebola virus, Nipah virus, corona viruses such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and the 2019 novel corona virus that has infected nearly 10,000 people and killed over 200 others.

 Even as these viruses cause harm in humans, they rarely if at all cause any harmful effects in bats. This is the case even when the viral load is extremely high in bats.

 The reason why bats can harbour these viruses without getting affected is simply because bats can avoid excessive virus-induced inflammation, which often causes severe diseases in animals and people infected with viruses.

 The researchers found that significantly reduced inflammation in bats was because activation of an important protein — NLRP3 — that recognises both cellular stress and viral/bacterial infections was significantly dampened in bat immune cells.

 Studying further, the researchers found that reduced activation of the NLRP3 protein was in turn due to impaired production of mRNA (transcript).

 Since mRNA production is impaired the NLRP3 protein production gets compromised leading to less amount of the protein being produced.

 But this was not the case with mice and humans — there was no impairment to mRNA production so the NLRP3 protein was unaffected

The traces pesticides leave in treated products or those left by veterinary drugs in animals are called “residues”.

 The traces pesticides leave in treated products or those left by veterinary drugs in animals are called “residues”.

 A study of fruits and vegetables grown in the Nilgiris has found that some of the produce might be harbouring high levels of pesticide, beyond what is considered advisable. This was mainly true of potato and carrot.

 While the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) prescribes a maximum residual level (MRL) for some of the organophosphate pesticides used, it does not prescribe it for some other pesticides used in the cultivation of fruit and vegetables.

In a Rapid Communication published on January 14 – 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) had mentioned that the India-made Truenat MTB, a molecular diagnostic test to diagnose pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB and rifampicin-resistant TB, has high diagnostic accuracy.

 Truenat MTB has “high diagnostic accuracy as initial test to diagnose TB and to sequentially detect rifampicin resistance”, says the WHO Communication.

 Truenat MTB will be used as an initial test to diagnose TB thus replacing sputum smear microscopy.

 Truenat is developed by the Goa-based Molbio Diagnostics.

 The company was provided with technical assistance and resources by the Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND) to help commercialize Truenat. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) had assessed and validated the diagnostic tool.

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) – a diverse group of communicable diseases that prevail in tropical and subtropical conditions in 149 countries – affect more than one billion people and cost developing economies billions of dollars every year.

Populations living in poverty, without adequate sanitation and in close contact with infectious vectors and domestic animals and livestock are those worst affected.

As of 2017, the World Health Organization categorizes the following communicable diseases as neglected tropical diseases (NTDs):

 Buruli Ulcer

 Chagas Disease

 Chromoblastomycosisexternal icon

 Cysticercosis

 Dengue Fever

 Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease)

 Echinococcosis

 Fascioliasis

 Human African Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness)

 Leishmaniasis

 Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease)

 Lymphatic Filariasis

 Mycetoma

 Onchocerciasis

 Rabies

 Schistosomiasis

 Soil-transmitted Helminths (STH) (Ascaris, Hookworm, and Whipworm)

 Trachoma

 Yawsexternal icon

Many plant-based products, especially legumes such as chickpeas, beans, soybeans, contain FODMAP compounds that are poorly digestible and cause unpleasant intestinal symptoms, but now researchers have succeeded in breaking down FODMAPs with enzymes and producing new, stomach-friendly plant-based food products.

 FODMAPs are short-chain carbohydrate molecules that are poorly absorbed in the human small intestine.

 These non-absorbed compounds move along to the large intestine, where intestinal microbes feed on them.

 This results in the production of gases that causes symptoms especially for those suffering from intestinal disorders.

 The research team focused on two key FODMAP compounds: galactan and fructan.

 Galactan is abundant in, for example, legumes, while fructan is found in many cereals, among other things.

A traditional drug developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) for treating vitiligo or leucoderma is now available for commercial sale in India.

 The herbal drug, called Lukoskin, was developed by scientists of the Defence Bio-Energy Research (DIBER) centre at Haldwani in Uttarakhand.

 Developer conferred ‘Science Award’ for ‘Lukoskin’ that treats the skin condition.

 Ahead of the International Vitiligo Day, an herbal drug developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) offers a new hope to those suffering from leucoderma, a condition in which white patches develop on the skin.

Botulinum is a natural toxin produced by a bacterium known as Clostridium

botulin. It produces the toxin when it starts reproducing.

• The bacterium is commonly found in the soil, river, and sea water.
• There are around eight types — A, B, C1, C2, D, E, F, and G — of botulinum toxin

and they are distinguishable when diagnosed. But all types of toxins attack the

neurons, which leads to muscle paralysis.

• Botulinum affects both humans and animals but the type of the toxin varies —

botulinum C in birds and A, B and E in humans. The toxin has been recognised as

a major cause of mortality in wild birds since the 1900s.

• Avian botulism killed over 18,000 birds in and around Rajasthan’s Sambhar

Lake.

Measles.

• Measles is caused by a virus in the paramyxovirus family and it is normally

passed through direct contact and through the air.

• The virus infects the respiratory tract, and then spreads throughout the body.

Measles is a human disease and is not known to occur in animals.

• Measles is a highly contagious, serious disease caused by a virus. Before the

introduction of measles vaccine in 1963 and widespread vaccination, major

epidemics occurred approximately every 2–3 years and measles caused an estimated

2.6 million deaths each year.

• Accelerated immunization activities have had a major impact on reducing measles

deaths. During 2000– 2018, measles vaccination prevented an estimated 23.2

million deaths. Global measles deaths have decreased by 73% from an estimated

536000 in 2000 to 142,000 in 2018.

A nucleotide is an organic molecule that is the building block of DNA and

RNA.

• They also have functions related to cell signaling, metabolism, and enzyme

reactions.

• A nucleotide is made up of three parts: a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar,

and a nitrogenous base.

• The four nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine, cytosine, guanine,

and thymine.

• RNA contains uracil, instead of thymine.
• A nucleotide within a chain makes up the genetic material of all known living things.
• They also serve a number of functions outside of genetic information storage, as

messengers and energy moving molecules.

Archaea.

• Archaea (singular archaeon) are a primitive group of microorganisms that thrive

in extreme habitats such as hot springs, cold deserts and hyper-saline lakes.

• These slow-growing organisms are also present in the human gut, and have a

potential relationship with human health.

• They are known for producing antimicrobial molecules, and for anti-oxidant activity

with applications in eco-friendly waste-water treatment

A pack animal is a type of animal used by humans to carry heavy loads. These animals carry goods and supplies upon their backs across long distances or difficult terrain.

 They are not to be confused with draft animals, which pull weight on a cart or sled. The use of animals to carry cargo dates as far back as 3500 BC.

 Historical evidence suggests that donkeys have served as pack animals for longer than any other species. Other types of common pack animals include camels, yaks, horses, llamas, oxen, and water buffalos.

 Horses are used as a draught animal even in the Western countries.

 Dogs and reindeer are used in North America, North Europe and Siberia to draw sledges over snow-covered ground.

 Mules are preferred in the mountainous regions; while camels are used for caravan movement in deserts. In India, bullocks are used for pulling carts.

An assessment of antibiotic pollution in rivers across the world shows that the concentration of antibiotics in some rivers is much higher than what is considered safe.

 According to the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) industry alliance standards, the safe level ranges from 20-32,000 nanogramme per litre, depending on the antibiotic.

 However, in Bangladesh, the antibiotic metronidazole was found to 300 times the safe level — this was 170 times higher than what was estimated in London’s River Thames.

 The researchers — who presented their findings at the two day annual meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) in Helsinki, which began on May 27 — estimated presence of 14 antibiotics in rivers of 72 countries across six continents.

 A total of 711 sites were tested and antibiotics were found at 65 per cent of them.

 Trimethoprim, an antibiotic used to treat urinary tract infection, was found at 307 of the 711 sites tested.

 Ciproflaxacin most frequently exceeded safe levels, surpassing the safety threshold at 51 places.

Statement 1 is correct. The immune system develops a defense against

antigens, which are substances that can stimulate the immune system. This defense is

known as the immune response and usually involves the production of:

–Protein molecules (immunoglobulins or antibodies, the major component of humoral

immunity) by B-lymphocytes (B-cells)

-Specific cells, including T-lymphocytes (also known as cell-mediated immunity).

Statement 2 is correct. There are five immunoglobulin classes (isotypes) of antibody

molecules: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD.

–Immunoglobulin A (IgA), which is found in high concentrations in the mucous

membranes, particularly those lining the respiratory passages and gastrointestinal tract, as

well as in saliva and tears.

–Immunoglobulin G (IgG), the most abundant type of antibody, is found in all body fluids

and protects against bacterial and viral infections.

–Immunoglobulin M (IgM), which is found mainly in the blood and lymph fluid, is the first

antibody to be made by the body to fight a new infection.

–Immunoglobulin E (IgE), which is associated mainly with allergic reactions. It is found in

the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes.

–Immunoglobulin D (IgD) exists in small amounts in the blood.

Statement 1 is correct. Droplet transmission occurs when a person is in in

close contact (within 1 m) with someone who has respiratory symptoms (e.g., coughing or

sneezing) and is therefore at risk of having his/her mucosae (mouth and nose) or

conjunctiva (eyes) exposed to potentially infective respiratory droplets.

Statement 2 is correct. Airborne transmission refers to situations where droplet nuclei

(residue from evaporated droplets) or dust particles containing microorganisms can remain

suspended in air for long periods of time.

Droplet nuclei, which are generally considered to be particles <5μm in diameter, can

remain in the air for long periods of time and be transmitted to others over distances

greater than 1 m.

Viruses are small particles of genetic material that are surrounded by a

protein coat.

Statement 1 is correct. Each one consists of genetic material—either DNA or RNA—

encapsulated in a protein pocket called a capsid. Some are additionally enveloped in a soft,

lipid wrapping.

Statement 2 is correct. Due to their simple structure, viruses cannot move or even

reproduce without the help of a host cell. But when it finds a host, a virus can multiply

and spread rapidly.

To identify the correct host, viruses have evolved receptors on their surfaces that match up

with those of their ideal target cell, letting the virus get its genetic material inside and

hijack its host’s cellular machinery to help it reproduce by multiplying the virus’ genetic

material and proteins.

# Viruses and bacteria are two types of potentially disease-causing (pathogenic) particles.

Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and can’t reproduce without the assistance of a host.

Bacteria are capable of reproducing on their own.

Statement 1 is incorrect. Myelin is an insulating layer, or sheath that forms

around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. It is made up of protein and

fatty substances.

Statement 2 is correct. This myelin sheath allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly

and efficiently along the nerve cells. If myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down. This

can cause diseases such as multiple sclerosis.

# Coronaviruses have been postulated to cause demyelinating disease through the direct

effect on oligodendrocytes (cells in the nervous system), and through immune mechanisms in

which similarities between the virus and myelin lead to T-cells attacking the body’s own

myelin. [The Hindu]

Option 1 is incorrectly matched. Hypoesthesia is a decrease in your normal

sensations such as touch or temperature.

Anosmia is an absent or decreased sense of smell.

Option 2 is correctly matched. Ageusia is the loss of taste functions of the tongue.

Option 3 is correctly matched. Insomnia is the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep at night

Statement 1 is correct. The 1918 influenza (Spanish flu) pandemic was the

most severe pandemic in recent history. It was caused by an H1N1 virus with genes of avian

origin.

The conditions of World War I (overcrowding and global troop movement) helped the 1918

flu spread. The vulnerability of healthy young adults and the lack of vaccines and

treatments created a major public health crisis, causing at least 50 million deaths

worldwide

Statement 2 is incorrect. 1918 flu pandemic in India as a part of the worldwide Spanish flu

pandemic severely affected Indian population. Also referred to as the Bombay Influenza or

the Bombay Fever in India, the pandemic is believed to have killed up to 14 -17 million

people in the country.

# The decade between 1911 and 1921 was the only census period in which India’s

population fell.

Both statements are correct.

Cyanobacteria are aquatic and photosynthetic, that is, they live in the water, and can

manufacture their own food. Because they are bacteria, they are quite small and usually

unicellular, though they often grow in colonies large enough to see.

Cyanobacteria can occur naturally in standing water and sometimes grow into large

blooms known as blue-green algae.

They are also important providers of nitrogen fertilizer in the cultivation of rice and beans.

Some species of cyanobacteria produce toxins that affect animals and humans.

# Botswana is home to about a third of Africa’s declining elephant population. Recently many

elephant carcasses were spotted in the country’s Okavango Delta between May and June.

# Officials say a total of 330 elephants are now known to have died from ingesting

cyanobacteria.

Statement 1 is correct. Sandal spike disease has several symptoms; there is

a reduction in leaf size, loss of apical dominance of the branches giving a “witches-broom”

condition and phyllody of the flowers, stiffening and reduction of internode length.

In advanced stage, the entire shoot gives the appearance of a spike inflorescence. Spiked

trees die within 1–2 years after the appearance of visible symptoms.

Presently, there is no option but to cut down and remove the infected tree to prevent the

spread of the disease, caused by phytoplasma bacterial parasites of plant tissues, which are

transmitted by insect vectors.

Statement 2 is incorrect. SPIKE disease of Sandal (Santalum album L.) is of considerable

importance to the sandal-wood industry of southern India. It has been one of the major

causes for the decline in sandalwood production in the country for over a century. The

disease was first reported in Kodagu in 1899.

# It has been reported that India’s sandalwood trees are facing a serious threat with the

return of the Sandalwood Spike Disease (SSD).

Statement 1 is correct. Herd immunity happens when so many people in a

community become immune to an infectious disease. As many viral and bacterial infections

spread from person to person. This chain is broken when most people don’t get or transmit

the infection.

This provides indirect protection (herd protection) to those who are not immune to the

disease.

Statement 2 is incorrect. Herd Immunity can be developed when many people in the

population:

–contract the disease and in time build up an immune response to it (natural immunity).

-are vaccinated against the disease to achieve immunity.

Statement 1 is correct. Coronaviruses are a large group of viruses that cause diseases in animals and humans. They often circulate among camels, cats, and bats, and can sometimes evolve and infect people.

In animals, coronaviruses can cause diarrhea in cows and pigs, and upper respiratory disease in chickens. In humans, the viruses can cause mild respiratory infections, like the common cold, but can lead to serious illnesses, like pneumonia.

Statement 2 is incorrect. Coronaviruses are named for the crown-like spikes on their surface. Human coronaviruses were first identified in the mid-1960s.

There are currently seven coronaviruses known to infect humans. Four of them cause mild to moderate disease. More specifically, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-HKU1 and HCoV-229E cause common colds, and severe lower respiratory tract infections in the youngest and oldest age groups, while HCoV-NL63 is an important cause of (pseudo) croup and bronchiolitis in children.

The other three cause more severe and even fatal disease and have emerged more recently: SARS-CoV responsible for the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2002, MERS-CoV the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) in 2012 and SARS-CoV-2, identified with a cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, China in late 2019.

All of the above diseases have zoonotic origin.

Zoonotic diseases (also known as zoonoses) are caused by germs that spread between animals and people.

Lyme disease is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi and rarely, Borrelia mayonii. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected blacklegged ticks. Typical symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash called erythema migrans.

All available evidence for COVID-19 suggests that SARS-CoV-2 has a zoonotic source. Since there is usually limited close contact between humans and bats, it is more likely that transmission of the virus to humans happened through another animal species, one that is more likely to be handled by humans [World Health Organisation].

Brucellosis is a disease caused by a group of bacteria from the genus Brucella. These bacteria can infect both humans and animals. Most commonly, people are infected by eating raw or unpasteurized dairy products.

Long Covid is not medically definitive, but a term that describes a portion of the population struggling with symptoms for weeks or months after being infected with Covid-19, and not just those who were seriously ill.

The most common feature is crippling fatigue. Others symptoms include: breathlessness, a cough that won’t go away, joint pain, muscle aches, hearing and eyesight problems, headaches, loss of smell and taste as well as damage to the heart, lungs, kidneys and gut.

Mental health problems have been reported including depression, anxiety and struggling to think clearly.

Both statements are incorrect.

Antimicrobials – including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics – are medicines used to prevent and treat infections in humans, animals and plants.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicines making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness and death.

Antibiotic resistance does not mean the body is becoming resistant to antibiotics; it is that bacteria have become resistant to the antibiotics designed to kill them.

Especially alarming is the rapid global spread of multi- and pan-resistant bacteria (also known as “superbugs”) that cause infections that are not treatable with existing antimicrobial medicines such as antibiotics.

The clinical pipeline of new antimicrobials is scarce. In 2019 WHO identified 32 antibiotics in clinical development that address the WHO list of priority pathogens, of which only six were classified as innovative.

Statement 1 is correct. A concussion is a type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head or by a hit to the body that causes the head and brain to move rapidly back and forth. This sudden movement can cause the brain to bounce around or twist in the skull, creating chemical changes in the brain and sometimes stretching and damaging brain cells.

Statement 2 is correct. A contusion happens when an injured capillary or blood vessel leaks blood into the surrounding area. Contusions are a type of hematoma, which refers to any collection of blood outside of a blood vessel. It is a medical term for the common bruise.

Vasoplegia is the syndrome of pathological low systemic vascular resistance, the dominant clinical feature of which is reduced blood pressure in the presence of a normal or raised cardiac output.

Vasoplegic syndrome is a common occurrence following cardiothoracic surgery and is characterized as a high-output shock state with poor systemic vascular resistance. The pathophysiology is complex and includes dysregulation of vasodilatory and vasoconstrictive properties of smooth vascular muscle cells.

Statement 1 is incorrect. It is not a serological test. Serologic tests measure the antibody response in an individual.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification, or LAMP, is an assay that can be used for viral RNA detection. This is a one ­step nucleic acid amplification method to multiply specific sequences of RNA of the coronavirus. Here, the RNA is first made into cDNA (copy DNA) by the usual re­verse transcription. Then, the DNA is amplified by the LAMP technique.

Statement 2 is correct. The benefits of RT-LAMP are important for the viability of broadscale use of this technology. Chief among these is that amplification of genetic material is done quickly under isothermal conditions, which removes the requirements for a thermal cycler.

This also allows for higher amplification efficiency, because there is no need to wait for thermal changes, and thus no time is lost. Whereas a traditional PCR can take around 3 to 4 hours, RT-LAMP takes less than an hour. Other benefits include the high specificity and selectivity for the genetic material in question.

The study, named SHINE (Shorter Treatment for Minimal Tuberculosis in Children), was sponsored by University College London (UCL).

Children often have mild forms of TB and it is likely that they could be successfully treated for less than the standard 6 months. This would have major advantages for the child, their family and carers, and for overburdened health systems, by reducing the number of clinic visits children need to make to take their drugs.

This study is examined whether a shorter 4-month regimen will be non-inferior to the standard 6-month regimen in terms of unfavourable outcomes at 72 weeks.

The trial has found no significant differences between children who received the shortened four-month long treatment compared to those who received the standard six-month treatment plan.

The Ramachandran plot is a foundational concept used in biochemistry courses to describe the basic elements of protein structure.

It was developed in 1963 by G. N. Ramachandran, C. Ramakrishnan, and V. Sasisekharan, to visualize energetically allowed regions for backbone dihedral angles ψ against φ of amino acid residues in protein structure.

# Proteins are made of long-chain polymers called polypeptides. There can be one or multiple polypeptide chains that come together to form a protein. The novel coronavirus’s spike protein comprises three identical peptide chains. Each chain consists of repeating units called amino acids.

Protein is made from twenty-plus basic building blocks called amino acids. Because we don’t store amino acids, our bodies make them in two different ways: either from scratch, or by modifying others.

Nine amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—known as the essential amino acids, must come from food.

Nonessential means that our bodies produce an amino acid, even if we do not get it from the food we eat. Nonessential amino acids include: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.

AlphaFold is an artificial intelligence program developed by Google’s DeepMind which performs predictions of protein structure.

It has outperformed around 100 other teams in a biennial protein-structure prediction challenge called Critical Assessment of Structure Prediction (CASP). The results were announced on 30 November, at the start of the conference — held virtually this year — that takes stock of the exercise.

The ability to accurately predict protein structures from their amino-acid sequence would be a huge boon to life sciences and medicine. It would vastly accelerate efforts to understand the building blocks of cells and enable quicker and more advanced drug discovery.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer’s disease. Early symptoms of PD include tremor, rigidity, and difficulty walking; cognitive decline is common at later stages. The underlying pathology of PD is selective death of dopamine-generating cells in the substantia nigra, a part of the brain involved in movement, reward, and addiction.

Statement 1 is correct. There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease, medicines, surgical treatment, and other therapies can often relieve some symptoms.

Statement 2 is incorrect. Both men and women can have Parkinson’s disease. However, the disease affects about 50 percent more men than women.

One clear risk factor for Parkinson’s is age. Although most people with Parkinson’s first develop the disease at about age 60, about 5 to 10 percent of people with Parkinson’s have “early-onset” disease, which begins before the age of 50.

A new species of Indian Muraingrasses known for their ecological and economic importance, such as fodder, have been spotted by scientists in Goa in the Western Ghats, one of the four global biodiversity hotspots of India. The species has adapted to survive harsh conditions, low nutrient availability, and blossoms every monsoon.

Globally 85 species are known from Ischaemum, of which 61 species are exclusively found in India. The Western Ghats have 40 species with the highest concentration of the genus.

The species was named Ischaemum janarthanamiiin honor of Prof. M. K. Janarthanam, Professor of Botany, Goa University, for his contribution to the Indian grass taxonomy and documentation of the floristic diversity of Goa state.

Four kinds of malaria parasites infect humans: Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae. In addition, P. knowlesi, a type of malaria that naturally infects macaques in Southeast Asia, also infects humans, causing malaria that is transmitted from animal to human (“zoonotic” malaria).

1. falciparum is the type of malaria that is most likely to result in severe infections and if not promptly treated, may lead to death. Although malaria can be a deadly disease, illness and death from malaria can usually be prevented.

# Recently it was reported that a soldier in Kerala is believed to have contracted Plasmodium ovale during his posting in Sudan.

Both statements are correct.

ACE2 is a protein on the surface of many cell types. It is an enzyme that generates small proteins – by cutting up the larger protein angiotensinogen – that then go on to regulate functions in the cell.

ACE2 is present in many cell types and tissues including the lungs, heart, blood vessels, kidneys, liver and gastrointestinal tract. It is present in epithelial cells, which line certain tissues and create protective barriers.

Using its spike proteins the SARS-CoV-2 binds to the ACE2 receptors which acts as a doorway for the virus to enter the human body.

When the SARS-CoV-2 virus binds to ACE2, it prevents ACE2 from performing its normal function to regulate ANG II signaling. Thus, ACE2 action is “inhibited,” removing the brakes from ANG II signaling and making more ANG II available to injure tissues. This “decreased braking” likely contributes to injury, especially to the lungs and heart, in COVID-19 patients.

Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS) (also called alpha-gal allergy, red meat allergy, or tick bite meat allergy) is a serious, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction. AGS may occur after people eat red meat or are exposed to other products containing alpha-gal.

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently approved a first-of-its-kind intentional genomic alteration (IGA) in a line of domestic pigs referred to as GalSafe pigs. It aims to eliminate a type of sugar found in mammals called alpha-gal.

Statement 1 is incorrect. HIV after entering the human body gradually

destroys the immune system, i.e. the ability to fight infections/diseases.

AIDS is the later stage of HIV infection. It is a condition in which a group of symptoms

appear as the immune system becomes very weak. It can take around 8-10 years from the

time of HIV infection to the stage of AIDS.

Being diagnosed with HIV does not mean a person will also be diagnosed with AIDS.

Healthcare professionals diagnose AIDS only when people with HIV infection begin to get

severe opportunistic infections (OIs), or their CD4cell counts fall below a certain level.

Statement 2 is incorrect. The 2019 HIV estimates by the National AIDS Control

Organization (NACO) states that there has been a 66.1% reduction in new HIV infections

among children and a 65.3% reduction in AIDS-related deaths in India over a nine-year

period. The number of pregnant women living with HIV has reduced from 31,000 in

2010 to 20,000 in 2019.

Under the leadership of NACO, a ‘Fast-Tracking of EMTCT (elimination of mother-to-child

transmission) strategy-cum-action plan’ was outlined by June 2019, in the run-up towards

December 2020: the deadline to achieve

EMTCT.

Both statements are correct.

Soil-transmitted helminth infections are caused by different species of parasitic worms.

They are transmitted by eggs present in human faeces, which contaminate the soil in areas where sanitation is poor.

Infected children are nutritionally and physically impaired.

Soil-transmitted helminth infection is found mainly in areas with warm and moist climates where sanitation and hygiene are poor, including in temperate zones during warmer months.

These STHs are considered Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) because they inflict tremendous disability and suffering yet can be controlled or eliminated.

# Since its launch in 2015, the National Deworming Day (NDD), a flagship program of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, is implemented as a biannual single day programme implemented through the platforms of schools and anganwadis. Albendazole tablet, approved by World Health Organization (WHO), is used for treatment of intestinal worms in children and adolescents as part of Mass Drug Administration (MDA) programmes globally.

The SPINK1-positive prostate cancer subtype derives its name from the excess amount of SPINK1 oncogene found in the cancer cells.

 Excess production of SPINK1 gene responsible for tumour and metastasis is not restricted to prostate cancer alone but also seen in colorectal, lung, pancreatic, breast and ovarian cancers.

 the molecular mechanism and pathobiology of SPINK1-positive prostate cancer subtype, the second most recurrent and aggressive in nature that affects about 15% of patients has been finally unravelled.

 The insights gained in this study might therefore help in the treatment and disease management of several SPINK1-positive malignancies.

 In addition to excess amount of the SPINK1 oncogene, the researchers found that most cancer cells belonging to this subtype also have more than normal amount of a particular protein called EZH2.

 Also, the levels of two micro RNAs (miRNA-338-5p and miRNA-421) produced in SPINK1-positive cancer cells were much less.

Statement 1 is incorrect. Wolbachia are extremely common and natural

bacteria that occur naturally in 60 per cent of insect species, including some

mosquitoes, fruit flies, moths, dragonflies

Statement 2 is correct. It is often reported to be used in prevention of mosquito-borne

viral diseases. However, it is not usually found in the Aedes aegypti mosquito (responsible

for transmitting viruses such as Zika, dengue and chikungunya).

Prevention methods involve introducing Wolbachia into populations of Aedes aegypti. When

the Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes breed with their wild counterparts, the percentage of

mosquitoes carrying the bacterium grows.

Wolbachia has been seen to decrease the lifespan of Aedes aegypti, carriers of mosquitoborne

diseases, and decreases their efficacy of pathogen transmission.

The World Mosquito Program uses safe and natural bacteria called Wolbachia to prevent

the transmission of mosquito-borne viral diseases such as dengue, Zika, chikungunya and

yellow fever.

Haemodynamic monitoring is the study of how blood flows through the

cardiovascular system (i.e. the heart and blood vessels). The purpose of the cardiovascular

system is to deliver blood carrying oxygen and other vital nutrients to the cells and tissues

the body.

The results of haemodynamic monitoring allow the healthcare team to check whether a

person has:

-enough blood, to decide whether more or less is needed

-a suitable blood pressure

-structural problems with their heart that stops it from working properly

-good heart rate, to decide the heart needs more support.

Statement 1 is correct. There are two types of African trypanosomiasis (also

called sleeping sickness); each is named for the region of Africa in which they were found

historically.

East African trypanosomiasis is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

West African trypanosomiasis is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei gambiense.

Both types of African trypanosomiasis are transmitted by the tsetse fly which is found only

in rural Africa.

Statement 2 is incorrect. East and West African trypanosomiasis are eventually fatal if not

treated.

Progressive confusion, personality changes, and other neurologic problems occur after

infection has invaded the central nervous system (second stage). If left untreated, the illness

becomes worse and death will occur within months.

# The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared that Togo has become the first country

in Africa to eliminate human African Trypanosomiasis

: Immunogenicity is the ability of a foreign substance, such as an antigen, to

provoke an immune response in the body of a human or other animal. It is the ability to

induce a humoral and/or cell-mediated immune responses.

Antigenicity is the ability to be specifically recognized by the antibodies generated as a

result of the immune response to the given substance.

Both are immunogenicity evaluation tests.

Immunogenicity is the ability of a foreign substance, such as an antigen, to provoke an

immune response in the body of a human or other animal. It is the ability to induce a

humoral and/or cell-mediated immune responses.

ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) is a plate-based assay technique designed

for detecting and quantifying soluble substances such as peptides, proteins, antibodies,

and hormones.

The plaque-reduction neutralization test (PRNT) is a serological test which measures

virus-specific neutralizing antibody titers.

Option 1 is incorrect. Randomised Evaluation of COVID-19 Therapy

(RECOVERY Trial) is supported by a grant to the University of Oxford from United

Kingdom Research and Innovation/National Institute for Health Research (NIHR).

RECOVERY Trial is currently testing some of these suggested treatments:

-Low-dose Dexamethasone (now only recruiting children)

-Azithromycin (a commonly used antibiotic)

-Tocilizumab (an anti-inflammatory treatment given by injection)

-Convalescent plasma (collected from donors who have recovered from COVID-19 and

contains antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 virus).

Option 2 is correct. Solidarity is an international clinical trial to help find an effective

treatment for COVID-19, launched by the World Health Organization and partners.

The treatment options are: Remdesivir and Lopinavir/Ritonavir with Interferon beta-1a. On

4 July 2020, WHO accepted the recommendation from the Solidarity Trial’s International

Steering Committee to discontinue the trial’s hydroxychloroquine and lopinavir/ritonavir

arm.

Option 3 is correct. COVAX is co-led by Gavi, the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness

Innovations (CEPI) and WHO. Its aim is to accelerate the development and manufacture of

COVID-19 vaccines, and to guarantee fair and equitable access for every country in the

world.

COVAX is the vaccines pillar of the Access to COVID-19 Tools (ACT) Accelerator.

The serial interval of an infectious disease represents the duration between

symptom onset of a primary case and symptom onset of its secondary cases, i.e. the time

duration between a primary case-patient (infector) having symptom onset and a secondary

case-patient (infectee) having symptom onset.

The serial interval helps to gauge the effectiveness of infection control interventions

while also indicating rising population immunity and forecast future incidence. The more

quickly persons who contracted a disease are identified and isolated; the shorter the serial

interval becomes and cuts down opportunities for transmission of the virus.

Both statements are correct.

Brucellosis is a bacterial disease caused by various Brucella species, which mainly infect

cattle, swine, goats, sheep and dogs. Humans generally acquire the disease through direct

contact with infected animals, by eating or drinking contaminated animal products, or by

inhaling airborne agents.

Most cases are caused by ingesting unpasteurized milk or cheese from infected goats or

sheep. Person-to-person transmission is rare. The disease causes flu-like symptoms,

including fever, weakness, malaise and weight loss.

# Authorities of Lanzhou city, China recently confirmed that several thousand people have

tested positive for bacterial disease brucellosis due to a leak caused by a biopharmaceutical

company in 2019.

Statement 1 is correct. Pulmonary edema is a condition caused by excess

fluid in the lungs. This fluid collects in the numerous air sacs in the lungs, making it

difficult to breathe. Pulmonary edema that develops suddenly (acute pulmonary edema) is a

medical emergency requiring immediate care.

Statement 2 is incorrect. Pulmonary edema that isn’t caused by increased pressures in

your heart is called non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema.

High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a life-threatening form of non-cardiogenic

pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs) that occurs in otherwise healthy

people at high altitudes.

# There have been reports of risks of High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) to the soldiers

deployed at Pangong Tso and other heights recently.

Both statements are correct.

DVT (deep vein thrombosis) is a blood clot in a vein, usually the leg. Leg pain or swelling

may occur, but there may also be no symptoms.

DVT can be very serious because blood clots in veins can break loose, travel through the

bloodstream and get stuck in lungs. This is called a pulmonary embolism. A pulmonary

embolism can be life threatening and needs treatment straight away.

# Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum (SCTIMST),

an autonomous institute of the Department of Science and Technology, has recently developed

a device for the prevention of Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT). Scientists have come up with a

device that can facilitate flow of blood from the veins in the legs thus preventing DVT.

Statement 1 is correct. Pulmonary edema is a condition caused by excess

fluid in the lungs. This fluid collects in the numerous air sacs in the lungs, making it

difficult to breathe. Pulmonary edema that develops suddenly (acute pulmonary edema) is a

medical emergency requiring immediate care.

Statement 2 is incorrect. Pulmonary edema that isn’t caused by increased pressures in

your heart is called non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema.

High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a life-threatening form of non-cardiogenic

pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs) that occurs in otherwise healthy

people at high altitudes.

# There have been reports of risks of High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) to the soldiers

deployed at Pangong Tso and other heights recently.

Both statements are correct.

DVT (deep vein thrombosis) is a blood clot in a vein, usually the leg. Leg pain or swelling

may occur, but there may also be no symptoms.

DVT can be very serious because blood clots in veins can break loose, travel through the

bloodstream and get stuck in lungs. This is called a pulmonary embolism. A pulmonary

embolism can be life threatening and needs treatment straight away.

# Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum (SCTIMST),

an autonomous institute of the Department of Science and Technology, has recently developed

a device for the prevention of Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT). Scientists have come up with a

device that can facilitate flow of blood from the veins in the legs thus preventing DVT.