Early and Later Vedic civilization

The word ‘Veda’ signifies knowledge and the texts are actually about providing humans about knowledge to conduct their entire life on earth and beyond.
• It is written in highly stylised poetic style and the language is full of symbols and myths.
• The Vedas were initially handed down orally by generations of Brahmin families but it is estimated by historians that they were compiled around 1500 BC-1000 BC.

The Arayankas are also texts attached to the Vedas and they describe the rituals and sacrifices involved in the Vedas from various perspectives.
• They are said to be compilations of ritualistic information on the birth and death cycles as well as the complexity of the soul.
• It is argued that holy and learned men, called Munis, who preferred to dwell within the limits of the forests, taught them.

All knowledge comes under two kinds, the higher, Para, and the lower, Apara, says the Mundaka Upanishad, quoting the words of knowers of Brahman.
• Any meaningful discussion on an issue is possible only when the pros and cons are studied from all angles in a dispassionate manner.
• For instance, knowing about adharma and dharma and their influence on beings is necessary for it can shape one’s choices in life.
• A wise person would do well to avoid adharma. Dharma, if understood properly, can become the governing principle in one’s daily life.
• Apara Vidya or the lower knowledge is not false or wrong; in fact all the four Vedas wherein everything pertaining to phonetics, grammar, rituals, etymology, astrology, metrics, etc, is thoroughly explained, come under this category.
• Apara Vidya is the means by which one can aim for the four Purusharthas, including the glitter of worldly goals such as name, fame, wealth, etc as well as attainment of the heavens and other lokas.

The Vedas (Vid = to know, Vidya) are one of the earliest known texts to have been composed in India.
• The language of the Vedas is described as Vedic Sanskrit.
• The main collections of Vedic hymns are called samhitas. The Rig Vedic samhita is the earliest text.
• Each samhita has added texts called brahmanas, which have commentaries on the hymns and rituals.
• Each brahmana has an aranyaka (forest text) and an upanishad.

The literal meaning of Upanishad is to sit near someone. There are 108
Upanishads, of which 13 are the most prominent. The Upanishads dwell on the Atman and
Brahman, and focus a lot on the philosophy about life, universe, self, body, sacrifice, etc.
They emphasise that the knowledge of the self or atman should be acquired and that the
relation of the atman with the Brahman should be properly understood.
•Chhandogya Upanishad: First three ashramas (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya,
Vanaprastha).
•Brahadarankya Upanishad: Samsara (transmigration of soul).
•Jabala Upanishad: Four ashrams (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha,
Sannyas).

The main collections of Vedic hymns are called samhitas. The Rig Vedicsamhita is the earliest text. The Rig Veda is dated to between 1500 and 1000 BCE. The Rig Veda contains 10 books.
Samhitas are ritualistic texts, and they explain the social and religious importance of rituals. Each samhita has added texts called brahmanas, which have commentaries on the hymns and rituals.
Each brahmana has an aranyaka (forest text) and an upanishad. The aranyakas contain mystical ritual instructions to be undertaken in secret by the sages who live in the forests. Upanishads deal with philosophical enquiries.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 23.

The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks about the lands and gods of the people speaking the Indo-Iranian languages. It has references to the regions of northern and north-western parts of India. It has terms which show linguistic similarity with the Vedas. This text is indirect evidence that the early home of the Aryans was outside the Indian subcontinent.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 23.

Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware culture is found in northern India dating to the Chalcolithic period.
The OCP pottery has red slip and appears ochre in colour (the ochre colour comes off when the pottery is touched) and hence, it is called Ochre Coloured Pottery.
It has black painted designs. The OCP comes in the form of jars, storage jars, bowls, and basins.
The OCP culture dates to 2600- 1200 BCE and is found in the Indo- Gangetic plain and may have had some associations with early Vedic culture.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 24.

The burial system followed by the people of Neolithic period continued into the Megalithic period. A circular tomb using big stone slabs built upon the place of burial is known as a megalith. Such megaliths have been found in many parts of Tamilnadu.
The urn burial system was another type of practice and is evidenced in Adichanallur (present Thoothukudi district). Black-ware is peculiar to burial sites in Tamilnadu.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 25.

Cattle rearing was an important economic activity for the Aryans, although they practiced agriculture. Cattle were considered wealth.
The term for war in the Rig Veda was gavishthi which means search for cows (which is the contemporary term (goshti) for factions as well).
The donations to the priests were mainly cows and women slaves but not land, which reveals the importance of pastoralism. There was no private property in land.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 31.

The polity of the Rig Vedic period was that of a tribal society. The chief of the tribe was the main political head and he was called rajan.
The purohita or priest offered advice to the king. Vedic priests advised the kings, inspired them and praised their deeds. In turn they received rewards for their services.
Senani was the chief of army.
There is no evidence of tax collecting officers. Perhaps people made voluntary contribution called bali to the king. Some scholars say that bali was an imposed tax, and not voluntary.
There is no reference to the administration of justice.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 31,32.

In later Vedic phase, striking changes took place in the Varna System. There was an increase in the privileges of the two higher classes, the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas at the cost of the Vaisyas and Sudras.
In the Panchavimsa Brahmana, the Kshatriya is placed first, higher than the Brahmana but in the Satapatha Brahmana, the Brahmana is placed higher than Kshatriya.
In later Vedic society the importance of the purohita (priest) is stressed, as mentioned in the Vedic texts. The Kshatriyas challenged Brahmanical supremacy and their exclusive privilege of entering the asramas, a regulated four-stage life namely brahmacharya, grihasta, vanaprastha and sanyasa. The outcome of this was the birth of Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivakam.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 35,36.

During Early Vedic period, women had a respectable position but it is not possible to generalise about this. Society was essentially patriarchal with a preference for male children and cattle.
The birth of a son was preferred perhaps because of the martial nature of the society, which required male members for their clashes to establish dominance over the territories. Having ten sons was considered as a blessing.
Women attended assemblies and offered sacrifices. Marriage was common but primitive practices were also continued.
Polyandry seems to have existed, and widow remarriage was also known. People married at the age of 16–17, according to scholars, and there is little evidence of child marriage.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 30.

The Rig Vedas speak about not only the Aryans, but also about the non-Aryan people, whom the Aryans encountered in India. When the Rig Vedic people moved into India they came into conflict with people whom they referred to as Dasyus or Dasas.
Evidently the Aryans differentiated themselves from the dark native people who had different cultural practices, and sought to maintain their distinction.
The Rig Veda has references to several other groups. Simyu and Kikata are grouped with the dasyus. Sambara son of Kulitara is mentioned as a chief with 90 forts or settlements.
Varchin was another chief with many troops. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of a chief called Sambara by Divodasa of the Bharata clan.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 29.

Archaeological evidence points to the development of agriculture among the Rig Vedic people. The ploughshare is mentioned in the Rig Vedas.
The field was known as kshetra and the term krishi referred to ploughing. The terms langla and sura referred to plough and the term sita meant the furrow created by ploughing.
Water for irrigation was probably drawn from wells by cattledriven water-lifts using pulleys.
They had knowledge of different seasons, sowing, harvesting and thrashing. They cultivated barley (yavam) and wheat (godhuma).
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 31.