Janpath’s and Mauryan Empire

According to Puranic, Buddhist and Jaina traditions, there were sixteen mahajanapadas.
• The proto-states of the Gangetic region were known as janapadas and comprised chiefdoms, republics and small kingdoms.
• There were also ganasanghas or oligarchies, which were centred on clans. The Vrijjis were one of the best known of the gana-sanghas, and Vaishali was their capital in the Mithila region.
• The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies. Vedic orthodoxy was an established practice in these kingdoms.

The abacus and the animal part of the Sarnath pillar forms the official
national emblem of India. In the abacus of the Sarnath pillar, four animals are shown
representing four directions – a galloping horse (west), a bull (east), an elephant
(south) and a lion (north). The animals seem to follow each other turning the wheel of
existence till eternity.

Craft products like textile goods, ivory products, pots, etc., were exported over
long distances by merchants. All the major cities were situated on river banks and trade
routes, and were connected with each other.
•The two major trans-regional routes of the time were known as Uttarapatha (of
northern India, stretching from the north-west across the Indo-Gangetic plains to
the port city of Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal).
•Dakshinapatha (of southern India, stretching from Pataliputra in Magadha to
Pratishthana on the Godavari, and connected to ports on the western coast).

The play Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta was written during the Gupta period, sometime after the 4th century CE.
It narrates Chandragupta’s accession to the throne of the Magadha Empire and the exploits of his chief advisor Chanakya or Kautilya by listing the strategies he used to counter an invasion against Chandragupta.
This play is often cited as a corroborative source since it supports the information gathered from other contemporary sources about Chandragupta.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 59.

Contemporary accounts by Greek historians show that Chandragupta was a youth living in Taxila when Alexander invaded India. Greek historians have recorded his name as “Sandrakottus” or “Sandrakoptus”, which are evidently modified forms of Chandragupta.
Inspired by Alexander, Chandragupta led a revolt against the Nandas years later and overthrew them.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 63.

The defining event of Ashoka’s rule was his campaign against Kalinga (present-day Odisha) in the eighth year of his reign. This is the only recorded military expedition of the Mauryas. The number of those killed in battle, those who died subsequently, and those deported ran into tens of thousands.
The campaign had probably been more ferocious and brutal than usual because this was a punitive war against Kalinga, which had broken away from the Magadha Empire (the Hathigumpha inscription speaks of Kalinga as a part of the Nanda Empire).
Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri caves is the main source of information about Kalinga ruler Kharavela. This inscription, consisting of seventeen lines has been incised in deep cut Brahmi script.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 64.

One of the major events of Ashoka’s reign was the convening of the Third Buddhist sangha (council) in 250 BCE in the capital Pataliputra. Ashoka’s deepening commitment to Buddhism meant that royal patronage was extended to the Buddhist establishment. An important outcome of this sangha was the decision to expand the reach of Buddhism to other parts of the region and to send missions to convert people to the religion.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 66.

At the head of the administration was the king. He was assisted by a council of ministers and a purohita or priest, who was a person of great importance, and secretaries known as mahamatriyas. The capital region of Pataliputra was directly administered.
Revenue collection was the responsibility of a collector-general (samaharta) who was also in charge of exchequer that he was, in effect, like a minister of finance.
At the next level of administration came the districts, villages and towns. The district was under the command of a sthanika, while officials known as gopas were in charge of five to ten villages. Urban administration was handled by a nagarika. Villages were semi-autonomous and were under the authority of a gramani, appointed by the central government, and a council of village elders.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 67 and 68.

The capital region of Pataliputra was directly administered. The rest of the empire was divided into four provinces based at Suvarnagiri (near Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh), Ujjain (Avanti, Malwa), Taxila in the northwest, and Tosali in Odisha in the southeast. The provinces were administered by governors who were usually royal princes.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 67.

Ashoka’s rule gives us an alternative model of a righteous king and a just state. He instructed his officials, the yuktas (subordinate officials), rajjukas (rural administrators) and pradesikas (heads of the districts) to go on tours every five years to instruct people in dhamma (Major Rock Edict 3).
Ashoka realised that an effective ruler needed to be fully informed about what was happening in his kingdom and insisted that he should be advised and informed promptly wherever he might be (Major Rock Edict 6).
He insisted that all religions should co-exist and the ascetics of all religions were honoured (Major Rock Edicts 7 and 12).
Providing medical care should be one of the functions of the state, the emperor ordered hospitals to be set up to treat human beings and animals (Major Rock Edict 2).
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 68,69.

The highly centralized administration became unmanageable when Ashoka’s successors were weak and inefficient. The last ruler Brihadratha was killed by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga Dynasty that ruled India for over hundred tears.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 73

Around 40 km from Bodh Gaya lies a cluster of four caves, namely Karan Chaupar, Lomas Rishi, Sudama and Visvakarma, known as the Barabar Caves. Carved out from a monolithic granite rock, these are supposed to have been constructed by emperor Ashoka for the use of Ajivaka ascetics. The most unique cave is Lomas Rishi, whose façade is an exact replica of the wood and thatch huts of monks. The interior of the cave has a remarkable glass-like polish.
Source: Old NCERT page 133

The names of Chandragupta and his two successors in the Mauryan period are well known now. But reconstructing their lives and careers was a laborious and difficult process for the earlier historians.
There are hardly any comprehensive contemporary accounts or literary works which refer to the Mauryan emperors though they are mentioned in various Buddhist and Jain texts as well as in some Hindu works like the brahmanas.
The Mahavamsa, the comprehensive historical chronicle in Pali from Sri Lanka, is an important additional source.
The scattered information from these sources has been corroborated by accounts of Greek historians who left their accounts about India following Alexander’s campaign in north-western part of the country.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 59

Agricultural surplus, the growth of crafts and trade, and the growing population led to the emergence of towns in the Gangetic plains. This is called the second urbanisation in Indian history after the first urbanisation evident in the Harappan Civilization. Different types of towns came into being:
(i) Political and administrative centres such as Rajgriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi and Champa
(ii) Centres of trade and commerce such as Ujjain and Taxila
(iii) Holy centres such as Vaishali.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 43.

The proto-states of the Gangetic region were known as janapadas and comprised chiefdoms, republics and small kingdoms. Sixteen mahajanapadas find mention in the early texts.
There were also ganasanghas or oligarchies, which were centred on clans. The Vrijjis were one of the best known of the gana-sanghas, and Vaishali was their capital in the Mithila region.
These kingdoms did not come under the single decision-making authority of a king but decisions were taken on a collective basis by the heads of the different clans together.
There were also smaller kingdoms such as Kosala and Kasi. It is interesting to note that the names of the clans, such as Ikshvaku and Vrishni, as well as these early kingdoms, are all mentioned in the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.

The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies. Vedic orthodoxy was an established practice in these kingdoms. The kingship was hereditary and the succession was in most cases based on the law of primogeniture.
The king was assisted by councils called parishad and sabha. The councils were advisory in nature. The king appropriated the agricultural surplus through land revenue apart from a few other taxes.
Bali was a tax imposed based on the area of cultivable land. Bhaga was obtained as a share of the produce. Kara and Shulka were some of the other taxes collected during this period.
Thus the king raised revenue through taxes to maintain an elaborate administrative structure and an army.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada.
Modern historians explain this development in a variety of ways:
•Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
•Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
•Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
•Also, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
•However, early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
Source: Themes in Indian History Part 1, page no. 31.

According to Puranic, Buddhist and Jaina traditions, there were sixteen mahajanapadas.
1.Gandhara
2.Kamboja
3.Assaka
4.Vatsa
5.Avanti
6.Shurasena
7.Chedi
8.Malla
9.Kuru
10.Panchala
11.Matsya
12.Vajji (Vrijji)
13.Anga
14.Kasi
15.Kosala
16.Magadha

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 44.

Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of Buddha, started the process of empire building. It was strengthened by his son Ajatashatru and then by the Nandas.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 58.

Among the 16 mahajanapadas, Kasi was initially powerful. However, Kosala became dominant later. A power struggle broke out between Magadha, Kosala, Vrijji and Avanti. Eventually Magadha emerged as the dominant mahajanapada and established the first Indian empire.
The first known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty.
The Shishunagas ruled for fifty years before the throne was usurped by Mahapadma Nanda.
Chandragupta Maurya Founded the Mauryan Empire after winning over Nanda Dynasty.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 60.

The word “Hindu” appears for the first time in an inscription of Darius I at Persepolis, Iran. Darius lists “Hindu” as part of his empire. The word “Sindhu”, denoting a river in general and Indus in particular, became “Hindu” in Persian. The Greeks dropped the S and called it Indu, which eventually came to be called Hindu and later India.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 61.

Agriculture improved during this phase of development in the middle Gangetic plains. Wet rice cultivation began to yield more produce of rice than other crops, thus creating the necessary agrarian surplus.
Protected irrigation alone was not responsible for the surplus production of rice. Iron technology also played a crucial role. While it is debated whether iron axe aided clearing of the forests or whether iron ploughshare increased agricultural yield, there can be no two opinions that it played a critical role in improving the production of artefacts.
The impact of iron technology is better understood if one considers “the technical changes which the introduction of iron implements would have brought about in various craft activities”. Leisure time provided by agricultural surplus and technology led to growth of crafts, which in turn aided vibrant trade.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 43.

The richer landowners were called grihapatis. These landowners employed labourers called dasas or karmakaras. The smaller landowners were known as kassakas or krishakas.
The society was stratified on the basis of varna. It emerged as a marker of status. Cultivators and artisans were identified as the shudras. A new social category that emerged during this period was placed below the shudras in the social hierarchy and considered untouchables. They were forced to live on the fringes of the settlements and subsisted on hunting and gathering their food. They were marginalised and given only menial jobs as urbanisation was on the rise. They had their own language, which was different from that spoken by the Indo-Aryans.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.

Option 1 is correct. The state emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath

Lion Capital of Ashoka. In the state emblem, adopted by the Government of India on 26

January 1950, only three lions are visible.

In the original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a

frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion

separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of

polished sandstone, the Capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).

Option 2 is correct. The National Flag is a horizontal tricolor of India saffron at the top,

white in the middle and India green at the bottom in equal proportion.

In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel which represents the chakra. Its

design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of

Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes.

Option 3 is incorrect. The national calendar based on the Saka Era, with Chaitra as its

first month and a normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22 March 1957 along with the

Gregorian calendar for the following official purposes. It commenced in 78 AD.