Post Mauryan kingdoms and the Early Kingdoms in Southern India

Patanjali, the notable grammarian who wrote the Mahabhasya was a contemporary of Pushyamitra Sunga.

The most important feature of the Sangam economy was flourishing trade with the Roman world.
•The best account of Indo-Roman trade is given in the book called the Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea, which was written in the first century CE by an anonymous author
•Major items of export to the Romans were the Indian products such as spices (included yavanapriya or pepper), perfumes, jewels, ivory and fine textiles (muslin especially), several precious and semi-precious stones like diamond, carnelian, turquoise, agate, sapphire, and so on, besides pearls, indigo, sandalwood, iron and steel cutlery.

Though the three Tamil ruling families were known to Asoka in the third century BCE itself, some individual names are known only from the Sangam poems of the first century and later.
Known as muvendar, ‘the three crowned kings’, the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas controlled major agrarian territories, trade routes and towns.
But the Satiyaputra (same as Athiyaman) found in the Asokan inscription along with the above three houses is a Velir chief in the Sangam poems.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 82.

The Cholas controlled the central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Their core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as Cholamandalam. Their capital was Uraiyur (near Thiruchirapalli town) and Puhar or Kaviripattinam was an alternative royal residence and chief port town.
The Cheras controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control.
The Pandyas ruled from Madurai. Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 82, 83.

Sangam poems help us understand the social formation of the time. According to the thinai concept, Tamilagam was divided into five landscapes or eco-regions namely Kurinji, Marutam, Mullai, Neytal and Palai.
Each region had distinct characteristics – a presiding deity, people and cultural life according to the environmental conditions, as follows:
•Kurinji: hilly region: hunting and gathering
•Marutham: riverine tract: agriculture using plough and irrigation.
•Mullai: forested region: pastoralism combined with shifting cultivation
•Neythal: coastal land: fishing and salt making.
•Palai: parched land. Unsuitable for cultivation and hence people took to cattle lifting and robbery.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 83.

There is evidence of craft production such as bronze vessels, beads and gold works, textiles, shell bangles and ornaments, glass, iron smithy, pottery making.
Craft production was common in the major urban centres such as Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam, Madurai, Korkai, and Pattanam in Kerala. Maduraikanchi speaks about day markets as well as and night markets selling several craft goods.
The names of persons mentioned in inscriptions on pottery reveal the presence of non-Tamil speakers, mostly traders, in certain craft centres and towns. Traders from faraway regions were present in the Tamil country.
Manimegalai refers to Magadha artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths and Yavana carpenters working in cooperation with Tamil craftsmen.
Traderelated terms such as vanikan, chattan and nigama appear in the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Salt merchants called umanar, travelled in bullock carts along with their families for trade activities. Chattu referred to the itinerary or mobile merchants.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 85.

Menander is mainly remembered as the eponymous hero of the Buddhist text, Milinda-pinha (questions of Milinda), in which he is engaged in a question-and-answer discussion on Buddhism with the teacher Nagasena. He is believed to have become a Buddhist and promoted Buddhism.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 93.

The Indo-Greek kingdoms in north-western India were ousted by various nomadic tribes from Central Asia, known as the Sakas (Scythians), Parthians (Pahlavis) and Kushanas (yueh-chi or yuezhi tribes in Chinese). In spite of the fact that they followed the Greek practice of issuing vast amounts of coinage with their names and titles (mostly “king of kings”), this is a very confusing period in our history.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 94.

Shakas – Kushanas introduced better cavalry & use of riding horses on large scale along with use of turban, tunic, trousers & longcoats.
Kushanas were the 1st ruler in India to issue gold coins on wide scale & controlled major part of silk trade.
Kushanas adopted pompous titles as King of Kings & were called Sons of god like Asoka was called Dear to gods.
Source: Old NCERT class 11, page no. 146

Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist philosophers such as Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna.
Asvaghosha is known for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the author of the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts.
The great dramatist Bhasa, whose plays were re-discovered only about a hundred years ago in South India, most probably belonged to this period.
Among the Hindu treatises, we find the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra and Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape by the second century CE.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 96.

King Hala is credited with the writing of Gatha Sattasai, a collection of 700 love poems. Written in Maharshtri Prakrit dialect, it has themes similar to those found in the Tamil Sangam poetry.
Asvaghosha is known for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the author of the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts.
Among the Hindu treatises, we find the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra and Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape by the second century CE.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 81 and 96.

The Cheras controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control.
Vanji is identified with Karur, while some scholars identify it with Tiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala. Now it is accepted by most scholars that there were two main branches of the Chera family and the Poraiya branch ruled from Karur of present-day Tamil Nadu.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 82.