The struggle to count women’s labour

UPSC Syllabus Topic: GS Paper 3 –Inclusive Growth, GS 1 Women empowerment, GS 2 Vulnerable sections of the society.

Introduction

Women’s labour remains deeply undervalued because large parts of their work are unpaid, invisible, and excluded from economic measures. Across societies, women spend more time than men on unpaid care, domestic, emotional, and mental labour. This work sustains families, communities, and economies, yet it is rarely counted as productive labour. The struggle lies not only in measurement, but in recognition, valuation, and policy response. The struggle to count women’s labour.

Current status of India’s women workforce

1. Female labour force participation trend: India’s female labour force participation rate fell from 31.2% in 2011–12 to 23.3% in 2017–18, then rose sharply to 41.7% in 2023–24.
2. Misleading signal of progress: The rise in participation does not indicate better jobs, as women continue to face poor earnings and insecure employment.
3. Decline in real earnings: Real earnings declined for women in all worker categories except casual labour, in both rural and urban areas.
4. Rural women driving participation: The increase in participation is largely due to rural women, not urban employment expansion.
5. Growing dependence on agriculture: The share of rural women in agriculture increased from 71.1% in 2018–19 to 76.9% in 2023–24.
6. Shrinking non-farm opportunities: Women’s participation in industry and services declined, showing limited structural transformation.
7. Unpaid work hidden in statistics: A large share of women are recorded under unpaid household work, which is excluded from employment counts.
8. Helpers in household enterprises: Many women are classified as helpers in family enterprises, which is unpaid and treated as employment.
9. Shift from domestic duties: Women reporting domestic duties fell from 57.8% in 2017–18 to 35.7% in 2023–24.

Concerns and challenges related to women’s unpaid labour

1. Exclusion from employment definition: Unpaid domestic and care work is not recognised as employment in official labour statistics.
2. Blurring of work boundaries: In rural households, domestic labour overlaps with farm and enterprise work, making women’s labour invisible.
3. Emotional and mental labour ignored: Relationship management, emotional support, and family coordination are critical but unmeasured forms of labour.
4. Unpaid care sustains productivity: This labour enables others to engage in paid work, yet receives no economic recognition.
5. Self-employment without security: Movement from domestic work to household enterprises increases workload without improving income.
6. Double work burden: Women combine unpaid household labour with paid or semi-paid work, increasing time poverty.
7. Falling returns to labour: Rising participation is accompanied by declining real wages, increasing vulnerability.
8. Gendered classification bias: Categories such as “helpers” mask unpaid family labour under the appearance of employment.

Concerns and challenges related to women’s unpaid labour

1. Exclusion from employment statistics: Unpaid domestic and care work is not counted as employment, despite its economic importance.
2. Blurring of work roles: Domestic work and household enterprise work overlap, especially in rural areas, making women’s labour invisible.
3. Neglect of emotional and mental labour: Relationship management, emotional support, and household coordination remain unmeasured.
4. Unpaid work sustains productivity: Women’s unpaid labour enables others to engage in paid work without being recognised.
5. Rising workload without income: Movement into self-employment increases work burden without improving earnings.
6. Double burden on women: Women combine unpaid care with paid or semi-paid work, increasing time poverty.
7. Falling returns to labour: Increased participation coincides with declining real wages and rising vulnerability.
8. Gender-biased labour categories: Terms like “helpers” mask unpaid family labour under the appearance of employment.

Reasons why women’s labour remains unrecognised

1. Male breadwinner bias: Economic systems privilege paid work traditionally done by men and undervalue care work.
2. GDP-focused development: Growth strategies prioritise output and infrastructure while ignoring social reproduction.
3. Neglect of care infrastructure: Public spending favours physical infrastructure over childcare, elder care, and mental health services.
4. Production–reproduction divide: Labour that produces goods is valued, while labour that sustains workers is ignored.
5. Naturalisation of gender roles: Biological differences are used to justify unequal labour divisions and hide power relations.
6. Historical subordination: Women’s labour is treated as non-productive due to entrenched social hierarchies.
7. Absence of emotional labour recognition: No law or policy acknowledges emotional and mental labour performed by women.

Impact of non-recognition of women’s labour

1. Economic undervaluation: Excluding unpaid labour distorts measures of productivity and national income.
2. Policy neglect: Lack of recognition leads to weak investment in care-related services and support systems.
3. Restricted labour market access: Heavy unpaid responsibilities limit women’s access to secure and paid employment.
4. Feminisation of vulnerability: Poor and marginalised women bear the greatest unpaid care burden.
5. Income inequality: Women’s indirect contributions are ignored in wage setting and earnings distribution.
6. Asset and property exclusion: Unpaid labour weakens women’s claims over family wealth and assets.
7. Workplace exploitation: Women face wage gaps, unsafe conditions, discrimination, and fear of retaliation.
8. Persistent gender gap: India ranked 31st in the Global Gender Gap Index 2025, reflecting deep inequalities.

Way forward

1. Legal recognition of unpaid work: Unpaid care and domestic labour must be formally recognised as economic activity.
2. Learning from global practices: Bolivia legally recognises unpaid home work and provides social security, Trinidad and Tobago mandates statistical valuation of unpaid care work, while Argentina grants pension credits for unpaid childcare.
3. Judicial acknowledgement in India: In 2023, the Madras High Court held that a wife’s household and caregiving work indirectly contributes to family assets, entitling her to an equal share.
4. Policy inclusion: National budgets and labour policies must account for unpaid and care labour.
5. Redistribution of care responsibilities: Men must actively share care work to reduce gendered burdens.
6. Strengthening social services: Investment in childcare, elder care, sanitation, and health reduces unpaid workloads.
7. Workplace dignity and safety: Equal pay, safe conditions, sanitation facilities, and law enforcement are essential.

Conclusion

Women’s labour sustains families, economies, and societies, yet remains systematically undervalued. Rising participation without income security exposes deep labour market weaknesses. Recognition must extend beyond employment numbers to unpaid, emotional, and care work. Legal reform, social investment, and shared care responsibilities are essential to correct this long-standing gender injustice.

For detailed information on Female Labour Force Participation Rate read this article here

Question for practice

Discuss why women’s unpaid, care, and emotional labour remains unrecognised in economic systems and examine its impact on women’s work participation and income outcomes in India.

Source: The Hindu