Kigali Amendment: India’s Cooling Transition and Climate Commitments

UPSC Syllabus: Gs Paper 3- Ecology, and Environment

Introduction

The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol marks its 10th anniversary on 15 October 2026. Adopted in 2016, it aims to phase down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), powerful greenhouse gases used in refrigeration and air-conditioning. Although HFCs do not deplete the ozone layer, they contribute significantly to global warming. As cooling demand increases, India faces the challenge of meeting its growing cooling needs while reducing refrigerant emissions and electricity consumption through energy-efficient technologies.

Background and Current Status of the Kigali Amendment

1. Montreal Protocol, 1987: The Protocol aimed to phase out chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances, helping protect the ozone layer from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
2. Progress in Phasing Out Ozone-Depleting Substances: Countries have eliminated nearly 99% of controlled ozone-depleting substances under the Montreal Protocol, helping the ozone layer recover and demonstrating the value of international cooperation.
3. Transition from CFCs to HFCs: HFCs became common refrigerants because they do not deplete ozone, but many have hundreds or thousands of times the warming impact of carbon dioxide.
4. Adoption and Entry into Force: Adopted in Kigali, Rwanda, on 15 October 2016, the amendment entered into force in January 2019 to control HFC production and consumption.
5. Early Efforts to Control HFCs: As HFC use increased, the Federated States of Micronesia and Mauritius proposed bringing these gases under the Montreal Protocol in 2009, paving the way for the Kigali Amendment.
6. Binding Phase-Down Schedule: The amendment sets legally binding schedules to progressively reduce HFC production and consumption rather than eliminate all use immediately, with developing countries receiving longer compliance periods.
7. Differentiated Timelines: Developing countries receive longer compliance periods, recognising their different technological and financial capacities while maintaining the overall objective of reducing HFC emissions.
8. International Participation: By early October, 175 parties had joined the amendment, indicating substantial global support but leaving scope for wider participation.

Significance of the Kigali Amendment

1. Climate Change Mitigation: Full implementation could prevent approximately 0.3°C–0.5°C of global warming by 2100. Many HFCs have hundreds or thousands of times the 100-year warming impact of carbon dioxide, weight for weight.
2. Combined Benefits of Sustainable Cooling: Using lower-warming refrigerants and more energy-efficient equipment addresses both refrigerant emissions and electricity-related emissions, potentially doubling the climate benefit.
3. Lower Electricity Consumption: Energy-efficient cooling appliances reduce household running costs and limit the additional electricity-generating capacity needed to meet rising cooling demand.
4. Strengthening Global Climate Action: The Kigali Amendment builds on the Montreal Protocol’s successful approach of binding targets, technological progress and financial support to reduce HFC emissions and limit global warming.

India’s Cooling Challenge and Commitments

1. Rising Cooling Demand: India’s cooling demand is projected to more than double by 2035 under current policies, increasing pressure on electricity infrastructure and climate commitments.
2. Significant Electricity Consumption: Cooling accounts for slightly more than 10% of India’s annual electricity demand, while air-conditioners can consume up to one-third of power on hot summer nights.
3. Ratification and Compliance: India ratified the amendment in September 2021 and must freeze HFC production and consumption in 2028.
4. Baseline for Compliance: India’s HFC reduction targets are measured against a baseline calculated using the average HFC production and consumption during 2024–2026, plus 65% of the historical HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) baseline.
5. Phased Reduction Targets: India must reduce HFC production and consumption against its agreed baseline by 10% in 2032, 20% in 2037, 30% in 2042 and 85% in 2047.
6. Early Improvement in Appliance Efficiency: Since cooling equipment may remain in use well into the 2030s, stronger efficiency standards can reduce household electricity bills and limit future demand for power generation.
7. Prevent Inefficient Equipment Imports: Weak efficiency standards can attract appliances that fail to meet requirements in stricter markets, leaving Indian consumers with unnecessarily high electricity bills over the equipment’s lifetime.
8. India Cooling Action Plan: Launched in 2019, the plan targets a 20%–25% reduction in cooling demand, a 25%–30% reduction in refrigerant demand and a 25%–40% reduction in cooling-related energy requirements by 2037–38.

Key Challenges in Implementation

1. Balancing Cooling Demand and Climate Goals: India must expand access to cooling while meeting HFC reduction targets, avoiding a transition that increases electricity consumption and associated emissions.
2. Pressure on Electricity Infrastructure: Rising air-conditioning use during summer evenings can strain power systems, especially when cooling demand remains high after solar electricity generation declines.
3. High Transition Costs: Manufacturers must modify production processes and adopt suitable technologies, while high equipment prices can make efficient cooling less affordable for consumers.
4. Refrigerant Leakage and Disposal: Refrigerants can escape during equipment servicing and disposal, requiring recovery, reuse or safe destruction beyond restrictions on newly produced HFCs.
5. Technology and Safety Barriers: Some alternatives, such as propane, have low warming potential but present flammability risks, while proprietary synthetic alternatives can involve high technology and licensing costs.
6. Limited Finance and Technology Access: Developing countries need funding and suitable technologies to modify manufacturing processes, while domestic industries must also bear transition costs beyond the support provided by the Multilateral Fund.
7. Unequal Access to Cooling: Higher appliance prices can limit access for low-income households, creating a difficult balance between environmental compliance and protection from extreme heat.

Financing and Institutional Support

1. Role of the Multilateral Fund: Established in 1990 and operational since 1991, the Fund receives contributions from developed countries to help developing countries meet the additional costs of complying with the Montreal Protocol.
2. Emission Reductions Supported by the Fund: The Fund estimates that its work helped developing countries avoid emissions equivalent to approximately 50 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide between 1995 and 2021.
3. Cost-Effectiveness of Financial Support: The Fund’s expenditure amounted to approximately US$0.07 per tonne of carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions avoided, although this figure covers the Fund’s expenditure rather than all transition costs.
4. Support for India’s Industrial Transition: Access to finance and suitable technologies can help Indian manufacturers modify production processes and train cooling-equipment technicians while meeting growing market demand.

Way Forward

1. Improve Appliance Efficiency: India should strengthen efficiency standards before treaty deadlines to reduce electricity consumption, lower household running costs and limit future power-generation requirements.
2. Promote Passive Cooling: Cool roofs, external shading, suitable windows and wall insulation can reduce indoor temperatures and dependence on mechanical cooling.
3. Strengthen Building Regulations: Effective implementation of energy-efficient building codes can reduce cooling requirements in new buildings and improve long-term energy performance.
4. Develop Sustainable Cooling Technologies: Manufacturers should adopt refrigerants with lower global warming potential while addressing safety requirements, technological barriers and affordability concerns.
5. Improve Refrigerant Recovery and Management: Training technicians and strengthening servicing practices can prevent refrigerant leakage, while recovered gases should be reused or safely destroyed when reuse is impractical.
6. Expand Financial and Technological Support: The Multilateral Fund should continue supporting developing countries in converting factories, training technicians and adopting suitable technologies, helping manufacturers manage transition costs.
7. Strengthen International Cooperation: The Friends of the Kigali Amendment coalition, revived in New York on 23 September and supported by the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, can promote wider participation, mobilise finance and improve access to efficient cooling equipment and refrigerant recovery.
8. Develop International Action on Methane: The Montreal Protocol could provide a model for a binding agreement to reduce methane emissions from oil and gas operations through emission measurement and leak repair, using existing technologies.
9. Adopt Sector-Specific Measures for Short-Lived Climate Pollutants: Methane reduction from cattle should account for small farmers’ incomes and food production, while black carbon control requires action on sources such as diesel engines and household cooking fuels.

Conclusion

The Kigali Amendment offers India an opportunity to align affordable cooling with climate commitments. Success depends on meeting HFC reduction targets, improving appliance efficiency, managing refrigerants safely and supporting manufacturers through the transition. Strong implementation and international cooperation can help India reduce emissions while meeting rising cooling needs fairly and sustainably.

Question for practice:

Evaluate the significance of the Kigali Amendment in addressing climate change and examine the challenges India faces in implementing its commitments.

Source: Indian Express