History Quiz: Early Janpath’s and early European Invasions | 7th Dec, 2020

Agricultural surplus, the growth of crafts and trade, and the growing population led to the emergence of towns in the Gangetic plains. This is called the second urbanisation in Indian history after the first urbanisation evident in the Harappan Civilization. Different types of towns came into being:
(i) Political and administrative centres such as Rajgriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi and Champa
(ii) Centres of trade and commerce such as Ujjain and Taxila
(iii) Holy centres such as Vaishali.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 43.

The proto-states of the Gangetic region were known as janapadas and comprised chiefdoms, republics and small kingdoms. Sixteen mahajanapadas find mention in the early texts.
There were also ganasanghas or oligarchies, which were centred on clans. The Vrijjis were one of the best known of the gana-sanghas, and Vaishali was their capital in the Mithila region.
These kingdoms did not come under the single decision-making authority of a king but decisions were taken on a collective basis by the heads of the different clans together.
There were also smaller kingdoms such as Kosala and Kasi. It is interesting to note that the names of the clans, such as Ikshvaku and Vrishni, as well as these early kingdoms, are all mentioned in the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.

The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies. Vedic orthodoxy was an established practice in these kingdoms. The kingship was hereditary and the succession was in most cases based on the law of primogeniture.
The king was assisted by councils called parishad and sabha. The councils were advisory in nature. The king appropriated the agricultural surplus through land revenue apart from a few other taxes.
Bali was a tax imposed based on the area of cultivable land. Bhaga was obtained as a share of the produce. Kara and Shulka were some of the other taxes collected during this period.
Thus the king raised revenue through taxes to maintain an elaborate administrative structure and an army.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada.
Modern historians explain this development in a variety of ways:
•Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
•Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
•Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
•Also, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
•However, early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
Source: Themes in Indian History Part 1, page no. 31.

According to Puranic, Buddhist and Jaina traditions, there were sixteen mahajanapadas.
1.Gandhara
2.Kamboja
3.Assaka
4.Vatsa
5.Avanti
6.Shurasena
7.Chedi
8.Malla
9.Kuru
10.Panchala
11.Matsya
12.Vajji (Vrijji)
13.Anga
14.Kasi
15.Kosala
16.Magadha

Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 44.

Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of Buddha, started the process of empire building. It was strengthened by his son Ajatashatru and then by the Nandas.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 58.

Among the 16 mahajanapadas, Kasi was initially powerful. However, Kosala became dominant later. A power struggle broke out between Magadha, Kosala, Vrijji and Avanti. Eventually Magadha emerged as the dominant mahajanapada and established the first Indian empire.
The first known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty.
The Shishunagas ruled for fifty years before the throne was usurped by Mahapadma Nanda.
Chandragupta Maurya Founded the Mauryan Empire after winning over Nanda Dynasty.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 60.

The word “Hindu” appears for the first time in an inscription of Darius I at Persepolis, Iran. Darius lists “Hindu” as part of his empire. The word “Sindhu”, denoting a river in general and Indus in particular, became “Hindu” in Persian. The Greeks dropped the S and called it Indu, which eventually came to be called Hindu and later India.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 61.

Agriculture improved during this phase of development in the middle Gangetic plains. Wet rice cultivation began to yield more produce of rice than other crops, thus creating the necessary agrarian surplus.
Protected irrigation alone was not responsible for the surplus production of rice. Iron technology also played a crucial role. While it is debated whether iron axe aided clearing of the forests or whether iron ploughshare increased agricultural yield, there can be no two opinions that it played a critical role in improving the production of artefacts.
The impact of iron technology is better understood if one considers “the technical changes which the introduction of iron implements would have brought about in various craft activities”. Leisure time provided by agricultural surplus and technology led to growth of crafts, which in turn aided vibrant trade.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 43.

The richer landowners were called grihapatis. These landowners employed labourers called dasas or karmakaras. The smaller landowners were known as kassakas or krishakas.
The society was stratified on the basis of varna. It emerged as a marker of status. Cultivators and artisans were identified as the shudras. A new social category that emerged during this period was placed below the shudras in the social hierarchy and considered untouchables. They were forced to live on the fringes of the settlements and subsisted on hunting and gathering their food. They were marginalised and given only menial jobs as urbanisation was on the rise. They had their own language, which was different from that spoken by the Indo-Aryans.
Source: Tamil Nadu state board class 11, page 45.