Current Affairs Compilations for UPSC IAS Prelims 2022

Mains Oriented Articles

GS Paper 2

• Creative formulas: On India, G20 and the Ukraine conflict

GS Paper 3

• Our forests are under threat — here’s how they are certified
• Clean-tech as the next big thing in rural India
• Which is the cheetah?
• Twist In Helix – Regulating consumer genomics in India
• G20 meet shows a deepening crisis in multilateralism

Prelims Oriented Articles (Factly)

• Decoding dengue: India’s first prospective DNA vaccine against disease is promising; but challenges lie ahead
• Supreme Court eases norm for selection of consumer court presidents, members
• Kuno Park unsuitable to host all 20 cheetahs, not enough prey, says scientist
• Quad members announce setting up of counter-terrorism working group
• Women, Business and the Law 2023 report: India scores 74.4 in World Bank index on working women
• U.S.-CDC probe into cough syrup deaths in The Gambia pins blame on Indian manufacturer
• Choosing the watchdog: On Election Commissioners appointment
• Select Central staff can opt for Old Pension Scheme
• World Bank to lend $1 billion to support India’s health sector
• Sisupalgarh: Land mafias damage rampart of ancient fortified city of Sisupalgarh
• 13th-century temple discovered at Pushpagiri Kshetram in Kadapa district

Mains Oriented Articles

GS Paper 2

Creative formulas: On India, G20 and the Ukraine conflict

News- Recently, two key G­20 ministerial meetings, of the Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (FMCBG) Bengaluru and Foreign Ministers Meeting (FMM) in Delhi have concluded without consensus over the Ukraine war.

What were the important developments during the G20 Finance Ministers meeting and Foreign ministers meeting?

Russia and China refused to accept the language on the Ukraine war that they had agreed to just three months ago in Bali.

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman was constrained to issue only a Chair’s summary and outcome document, rather than a joint communique.

The government also decided to include the paragraphs that were under objection by Russia and China. They named them in the document.

External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar also issued a Chairman’s summary and outcome documents too. For the first time, Finance Ministers meetings have not attempted to issue statements at all.

What are the opportunities provided by the Indian G20 presidency?

Mr. Jaishankar has pointed out that the bulk of the statements that pertain to the critical issues for the Global South, such as food and energy security and debt management have been ironed out.

India has opportunities for enlisting those countries in the grouping that are not part of entrenched camps of the G­7, U.S.­led developed world, and the Russia­-China combine. It will ensure that a middle path is found.

What is the way forward for India as G20 President?

There is clarity that India cannot depend on the language of the Bali Summit. Sherpas will need to iron out a new consensus language on Ukraine.

This will require creative formulas. It should take into account Russian grievances with the language, as well as the western desire to condemn Russia’s actions in the Bali document.

GS Paper 3

Our forests are under threat — here’s how they are certified

News- The article explains the certification process of forests.

What is the meaning of forest certification?

It offers a multi-layer audit system that seeks to authenticate the origin, legality, and sustainability of forest-based products such as timber, furniture, handicraft, paper and pulp, rubber, and many more.

What are the better methods of forest conservation?

Forests should be harvested in a sustainable manner for the products. In fact, periodic harvesting of trees is necessary and healthy for forests. Trees have a lifespan, beyond which they die and decay.

After a certain age, the capacity of trees to absorb carbon dioxide gets saturated. Younger and fresher trees are more efficient at capturing carbon dioxide. The problem arises only when trees are felled indiscriminately.

What is the status of the global forest certification industry?

The three-decade-old global certification industry began as a way to establish. It depended upon independent third-party audits, whether forests were being managed in a sustainable manner.

There are two major international standards for sustainable management of forests and forest-based products.  One has been developed by the Forest Stewardship Council, or FSC. The other is developed by Programme for Endorsement of Forest Certifications, or PEFC. FSC certification is more popular and in demand, and also more expensive.

Organisations like FSC or PEFC are only the developers and owners of standards like the International Organisation of Standardisation (ISO) or Bureau of International Standards (BIS).

They are not involved in the evaluation and auditing of the processes being followed by the forest managers or manufacturers or traders of forest-based products. That is the job of certification bodies authorised by FSC or PEFC.

The certification bodies often subcontract their work to smaller organisations. PEFC does not insist on the use of its own standards. Instead, it endorses the ‘national’ standards of any country if they are aligned with its own.

Two main types of certification are on offer: forest management (FM) and Chain of Custody (CoC). CoC certification is meant to guarantee the traceability of a forest product like timber throughout the supply chain from origin to market.

What is the status of forest certification in India?

The forest certification industry has been operating in India for the last 15 years. Currently, forests in only Uttar Pradesh  are certified. They are PEFC-certified. These standards have been developed by the New Delhi-based nonprofit Network for Certification and Conservation of Forests (NCCF).

Some other states too obtained certification, but subsequently dropped out. The Bhamragad forest division in Maharashtra was the first to obtain FSC certification for forest management.

However, all of these expired over time.

Many agroforestry projects, such as those run by ITC, and several paper mills too have forest management certification.

There are a large number of CoC certifications, but the dropout rate is 40%. As of now, there are 1,527 valid CoC certifications by FSC, and 1,010 that are suspended, expired, or have been terminated.

What are efforts by the government to develop India-specific standards?

The government has made efforts to define national standards for the management of forests.

Based on the recommendations of an expert committee in 2005, the Environment Ministry had asked relevant institutions like the Bhopal-based Indian Institute of Forest Management to draw up national forest standards.

A draft Cabinet note seeking the government’s approval for setting up such standards was drawn up. However, the effort did not come to fruition.

When the NCCF came into being in 2015, offering PEFC certification in India, the Environment Ministry nominated an officer on the governing board. It gave it official legitimacy. But the nomination was later withdrawn.

Last year, the Ministry associated itself with FSC, by launching its new India standards.

The role of private certification agencies has come under sustained criticism. So, the Ministry has restarted efforts to develop official national forest standards.

The government says the indigenous system of certifications will be simple, transparent, and easy to adopt, even by small farmers and tree growers. The benchmarks will adhere to internationally accepted norms, but will take into account India’s national circumstances.

Clean-tech as the next big thing in rural India

News- Distributed renewable energy (DRE) is transforming women’s livelihoods at the grassroots.

What is the potential of clean technologies for women’s livelihoods?

A recent Council on Energy, Environment and Water study has shown that out of the 13,000 early adopters of clean tech appliances, more than 80% are women.

Renewable energy­ powered technologies provide an additional advantage to women farmers and microentrepreneurs by enhancing income opportunities through mechanisation. They also free women from several gender assigned manual activities that are laborious.

By 2030, India is expected to see 30 million women ­owned MSMEs, employing around 150 million people. Renewable energy livelihood technologies have the potential to transform rural livelihoods, with women at the core of this transition.

What is the way forward to utilise the full potential of clean technologies for the livelihood of women?

First, leverage the experience of early women adopters. DRE appliances are perceived as high risk purchases, especially by women users due to socio economic reasons.

Technology providers must leverage early users to share their experiences with potential customers

Second, organise local events and demos. People want to see a high­tech product before believing in its ability and promised benefits, especially women. They historically have limited access to new information.

These events also create spaces for women to network, become aware of the product and connect with people. It can help them procure, finance and use these machines.

Third, enable easy finance to purchase products. Financiers supporting women farmers and micro entrepreneurs should consider the technologies themselves as collaterals while easing the loan application process.

Technology manufacturers and promoters should also ensure adequate after sales service and buy backs. To build financiers’ confidence, evidence on the economic viability of these technologies should be shared.

Fourth, support backwards and forward market linkages. Only technology provision is not enough in all cases. Many rural products have larger market potential. Thus, finding and connecting producers to consumption hubs in urban areas are equally important to generate higher incomes.

Women often struggle with established market linkages because of their limited mobility and networks outside their villages. Collectivising women or establishing business models that enable them to sell to an intermediary can ensure a regular revenue stream.

Fifth, enable policy convergence. No private sector entity has the kind of reach and scale possessed by government institutions. So, it is important to leverage their reach.

Multiple Ministries are working towards promoting livelihoods for women. They should embrace clean energy solutions to further their respective programmes and outcomes.

Which is the cheetah?

News: The article compares the economy of India and China and it also provides highlights towards India’s projected economy.

How has the Indian economy performed compared to China in the past years?

India’s economy has grown faster than China’s in the year 2021 and 2022.

For example, India’s economy grew at 7% compared to China’s which was at 3% for the year 2022. Similarly, in 2021, India’s economy grew at 9.1% while China’s was at 8.1%.

For the years 2014-2018, India outpaced China for the first time with an average 7.4 percent growth, while China managed 7 percent. This gave India the image of the world’s fastest-growing large economy.

However, things changed during the Covid period. For the years 2019 and 2020, China managed to do better than India. China grew by 6 percent in 2019 compared to India’s 3.9 percent for 2019-20.

Therefore, there was a large gap between the economies of the two nations for the Covid period. This benefited China to outpace India in average economic growth.

What are the different projections of China’s and India’s economic growth?

Economic forecasters have held that India would do significantly better than China in 2023-24. For example, the International Monetary Fund postulated China’s growth at 4.4 percent against 6.1 percent for India.

However, the projections changed after China gave up its zero-tolerance policy on Covid.

This led forecasters to project higher economic growth for China in 2023. Most have moved up their China forecast to 5.5 percent.

However, when compared to the growth projection given by this year’s Economic Survey (2022-23), the projection for China is below that of India’s.

The Economic Survey has kept India’s economic growth between 6.0-6.8 percent for the year 2023-24.

However, there is a doubt over the economic forecast projected by the Economic Survey after looking at India’s GDP growth for the quarter October-December.

What are the concerns with India’s economic growth?

The GDP growth for October-December was only at 4.4 percent.

Further, there is no sign of the economic growth that would take India from a 5 percent growth to 6 percent and more as stated by the Survey.

India also has serious trade and fiscal imbalances and excessive dependence on capital expenditure by the government.

Twist In Helix – Regulating consumer genomics in India

News: Indian companies are launching genome-testing kits that would be used by common people at homes to test their DNAs. This has various concerns associated with it.

What are the concerns with genome-testing kits?

Data Protection: Gene-testing companies tie up with third parties and India also does not have any law on personal data protection. Therefore, there are concerns over misuses of the citizens’ personal data.

Discrimination by insurance companies: Gene-testing can help to know a person’s risk over Type-2 diabetes or Alzheimer’s and other genetic diseases. This might lead to discrimination by the health insurance companies over giving the insurance.

What can be the way ahead?

Genome testing kits are popular in the US and even there it was found that gene-testing companies tie up with third parties.

Therefore, there is a need for the personal data protection law as well as the need to regulate information acquired by such testing companies.

G20 meet shows a deepening crisis in multilateralism

News- Group of Twenty foreign ministers, who met in Delhi this week were not able to agree on a final statement.

What are the factors behind lack of consensus in G20 meetings?

It shows the deepening great power conflict and worsening crisis of multilateralism. Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his address to the G20 foreign ministers recognised the profound crisis in multilateralism today.

The principal reason for the diplomatic failure at Delhi was the decision by Russia to walk away from the Bali consensus and China’s decision to support Russia.

Three months ago, when the Bali summit took place, the Russian invasion was facing challenges in Ukraine. It rapidly lost ground in the areas that it had occupied.

Since then Russia has reinforced its defensive lines in Ukraine. It is now ready for renewed military offensive. Moscow has also successfully consolidated its expansive strategic partnership with Beijing.

Putin appears confident that time is on his side. A prolonged war would exhaust Ukraine, divide the West and allow Moscow to prevail, if at a massive cost to Russia.

US President Joe Biden has reaffirmed that the US and the West will stand by Ukraine for as long as it takes.

What is the scope for India as G20 President?

The diplomatic room for Delhi, which led the effort in Bali to produce a consensus had clearly shrunk in recent times.

The PM has underlined India’s twin ambitions — to continue the campaign to reform multilateralism and to get the world to take into consideration the challenges faced by the “Global South”.

Foreign minister S. Jaishanker acknowledged the difficulties in producing a consensus on Ukraine.

He pointed to agreement among the foreign ministers on a number of issues of interest to India and the developing world. These include food and energy security, cooperation to counter terrorism, climate change, global health and disaster management.

India should be optimistic and committed to a sustained effort to make the G20 summit in September a success.

Prelims Oriented Articles (Factly)

Decoding dengue: India’s first prospective DNA vaccine against disease is promising; but challenges lie ahead

Source: The post is based on the article “Decoding dengue: India’s first prospective DNA vaccine against disease is promising; but challenges lie ahead” published in Down To Earth on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

In a significant development in DNA vaccination research, India’s first and only DNA vaccine candidate for dengue has shown promising results.

What is Dengue?

Click Here to read

What is DNA Vaccine?

DNA vaccines are third-generation vaccines. They are a type of vaccine that uses a small piece of DNA that codes for a specific antigen (a molecule that triggers an immune response) from a pathogen, such as a virus or bacterium, to stimulate an immune response.

The DNA is injected directly into the body’s cells, where it instructs the cells to produce the antigen.

The immune system then recognizes the antigen as foreign and mounts an immune response against it, which helps to develop immunity to the pathogen.

The ZyCoV-D is the world’s first and India’s indigenously developed DNA-based vaccine for COVID-19.

What are the challenges in developing a DNA Vaccine against dengue?

Firstly, developing an effective vaccine against dengue is tricky because it is caused by four closely related virus serotypes. Each one interacts differently with antibodies in human blood. A person infected with DEN-1 is then protected against it for life, but not against the other three serotypes. An ideal vaccine must target all serotypes.

Secondly, vaccines trigger the production of antibodies that prevent the virus from binding to cells at later exposure. But with dengue, antibodies help the virus replicate and cause severe disease.

Supreme Court eases norm for selection of consumer court presidents, members

Source: The post is based on the article “Supreme Court eases norm for selection of consumer court presidents, members” published in The Hindu on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

The Supreme Court has used its extraordinary powers under Article 142 to attract younger talent to preside over consumer courts by reducing the mandatory professional experience from 20 to 10 years.

What is Article 142 of the Constitution?

Click Here to read

What was the case about?

The Government of India released the Consumer Protection Rules, 2020 that govern the appointment of the President and members of State and District Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions.

The rules prescribed a minimum experience of not less than 20 years for the appointment of the president and members of the State Commission.

The High Court had held that the minimum experience condition is in violation of Article 14 of the Constitution and quashed them.

This judgment prompted the Union Ministry of Consumer Affairs to file the appeal before the Supreme Court.

What did the Supreme Court rule?

The Supreme Court said that the High Court was right in striking down the rules.

It said as per Article 233 of the Constitution, a lawyer needs to have only 7 years of practice as an advocate in the High Court. Under the circumstances providing 20 years’ experience is rightly held to be unconstitutional, arbitrary and violative of Article 14 of the Constitution of India. 

Kuno Park unsuitable to host all 20 cheetahs, not enough prey, says scientist

Source: The post is based on the article “Kuno Park unsuitable to host all 20 cheetahs, not enough prey, says scientist” published in The Hindu on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

The Kuno National Park(KNP) in Madhya Pradesh which currently hosts 20 cheetahs brought in from Africa, does not have enough prey to sustain all the animals.

What is Kuno National Park?

Kuno National Park is a national park in the Sheopur district of Madhya Pradesh(MP).

It was established in 1981 as a wildlife sanctuary.In 2018, it was given the status of a national park.

It is part of the Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests.

Kuno River, a tributary of the Chambal River flows through the National Park.

Eight cheetahs from Namibia and 12 from South Africa were transported to India and introduced at Kuno National Park(KNP).

Why is Kuno National Park(KNP) unsuitable to host all 20 cheetahs?

Lack of sufficient prey in Kuno National Park(KNP) was a “concerning” situation.

In KNP, chital is the most abundant prey for carnivorous species. At present, there are about 20 chital — the cheetah’s main prey — per square kilometre available at the KNP, a sharp decline from the nearly 60 chitals per square km that could be found in the park in 2014.

This amount of chitals would sustain maximum of 15 Cheetahs and the other 5 should have been shifted elsewhere.

Quad members announce setting up of counter-terrorism working group

Source: The post is based on the article “Quad members announce setting up of counter-terrorism working group” published in The Hindu on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

Quad leaders comprising the US, Japan, Australia, and India have issued a joint statement. 

What are the key highlights from the Quad statement?

Announced setting up of Quad Working Group On Counter-terrorism: The group would explore measures to counter new and emerging forms of terrorism, radicalisation, and violent extremism.

On Ukraine issue: The group called for lasting peace in Ukraine and in an oblique reference to the Russian invasion of Ukraine underlined respect for territorial sovereignty and integrity.

– Significance of this statement on Ukraine: The first reference to the Ukraine war in a joint statement of the Quad Foreign Ministers means the grouping, which had so far been concentrating mostly on the aggressive Chinese behaviour in the Indo-Pacific, has broadened its scope to include Russia. 

– Without naming Russia, the ministers sent Russia a clear message by calling for peace in Ukraine and the need to respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Women, Business and the Law 2023 report: India scores 74.4 in World Bank index on working women

Source: The post is based on the article “India scores 74.4 in World Bank index on working women” published in The Hindu on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

The World Bank has released the Women, Business and the Law 2023 report.

Based on this report, the World Bank has released the “Index on the life cycle of a working woman”.

What is the Index on the life cycle of a working woman?

Released by: World Bank

A score of 100 on the Index means that women are on an equal standing with men on all the eight indicators being measured.

– For India, the Index used data on the laws and regulations applicable in Mumbai.

What are the key findings of the index?

India’s score was down to 74.4 out of a possible 100.

India scored higher than the 63.7 average for the South Asian region, though lower than Nepal which had the region’s highest score of 80.6. 

Of the 190 economies covered in the Index, only 14 scored a perfect 100.

Observations made on India: India gets a perfect score when it comes to constraints on freedom of movement, laws affecting women’s decisions to work and constraints related to marriage.

However, India lags behind when it comes to laws affecting women’s pay, pension and work after having children, constraints on women starting and running a business, gender differences in property and inheritance.

U.S.-CDC probe into cough syrup deaths in The Gambia pins blame on Indian manufacturer

Source: The post is based on the article “U.S.-CDC probe into cough syrup deaths in The Gambia pins blame on Indian manufacturer” published in The Hindu on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

The US Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) investigation has found that contaminated medications made by India-based Maiden Pharmaceuticals were “associated” with the deaths of 66 children in Gambia,

What is the probe conducted by the US and Gambian Authorities?

A joint probe was conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of the US and the Gambian health authorities on the link between made-in-India cough syrups to the death of 66 Gambian children.

As per the joint probe report, there was a strong link between the death of many children in Gambia and the consumption of made-in-India cough syrups that were allegedly contaminated.

The investigation strongly suggested that syrups were contaminated with Diethylene Glycol [DEG] or Ethylene Glycol [EG] which led to the Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) cluster among children and eventually the death of 66 children.

What is India’s stand on this?

India has maintained that enough evidence was not provided by The Gambia or WHO to establish a causal link between the deaths and the Indian syrups. The control samples were found to be of standard quality by the Indian drug regulator.

Choosing the watchdog: On Election Commissioners appointment

Source: The post is based on the article “Choosing the watchdog: On Election Commissioners appointment” published in The Hindu on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

A five-judge bench of the Supreme Court (SC) unanimously ruled that the appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner(CEC) and the Election Commissioners(EC) shall be made by the President on the advice of a Committee consisting of the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition of the Lok Sabha and Chief Justice of India (CJI).

Why did the Supreme Court give this verdict on the appointment of CEC and EC?

The original intent of the Constitution makers was that the manner of appointment should be laid down in parliamentary law. 

Article 324 says the President should appoint the CEC and Commissioners, subject to any law made on that behalf by Parliament. However, successive regimes have failed to enact a law.

Hence, due to inertia of the Legislature and the vacuum created in the absence of law make it necessary for the court to intervene.

What was the government’s argument on this?

The government had argued that in the absence of such a law by parliament, the President has the constitutional power and asked the SC to exhibit Judicial restraint.

Will the presence of CJI in the selection panel bring independence and credibility to the institution of ECI?

The presence of the CJI in the selection panel is not the only way in which an institution’s independence can be preserved.

For instance, there is no clear proof that the independence of the CBI director, who is appointed by a panel that includes the CJI, or his nominee, has been preserved or enhanced. 

Further, the CJI’s presence may give pre­-emptive legitimacy to all appointments and affect objective judicial scrutiny of any error or infirmity in the process. 

Hence, on its part, the government will be well advised to enact a law — but not one that seeks to preserve the current convention to get around the verdict — that is in tune with the spirit of the Court’s emphasis on the ECI’s independence.

Select Central staff can opt for Old Pension Scheme

Source: The post is based on the article “Select Central staff can opt for Old Pension Scheme” published in The Hindu on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

The Central Government has given a select group of central government employees a one-time option to opt for the Old Pension Scheme(OPS).

Who is allowed to join the Old Pension Scheme(OPS)?

Employees who joined the central government services against posts advertised or notified before December 22, 2003, the day National Pension System (NPS) was notified are eligible to join the old pension scheme under the Central Civil Services (Pension) Rules,1972.

The select group of government servants can opt for this option by August 31, 2023. 

What is the Old Pension Scheme(OPS)?

Under OPS, pension to government employees at the Centre, as well as states, was fixed at 50 per cent of the last drawn basic pay.

Only government employees are eligible for receiving a pension after retirement.

Income under the old pension scheme doesn’t attract tax.

OPS was discontinued in 2003 with effect from April 1, 2004.

How is OPS different from New Pension Scheme(NPS)?

NPS is an easily accessible, low-cost, tax-efficient, flexible and portable retirement savings account.

Under the NPS, the individual contributes to his retirement account and his employer can also co-contribute to the social security/welfare of the individual.

NPS is designed on a defined contribution basis wherein the subscriber contributes to his account, there is no defined benefit that would be available at the time of exit from the system and the accumulated wealth depends on the contributions made and the income generated from investment of such wealth.

Simply put, under the old system, pension was fixed as 50% of the last basic salary drawn, along with other benefits. Hence, the benefit due was defined beforehand. However, in the case of the NPS, the pension benefit is determined by factors such as the amount of contribution made, the age of joining, the type of investment and the income drawn from that investment.

Moreover, residents as well as non-resident Indians in the age group of 18–60 years can invest in NPS.

World Bank to lend $1 billion to support India’s health sector

Source: The post is based on the article “World Bank to lend $1 billion to support India’s health sector” published in The Hindu on 4th March 2023.

What is the News?

The World Bank is lending up to $1 billion to help India with preparedness for future pandemics as well as to strengthen its health infrastructure.

Note: India’s performance in health has improved over time. According to the World Bank estimates, India’s life expectancy has increased from 58 in 1990 to 69.8 in 2020. This is higher than average for the country’s income level.

How will the World Bank lend India to strengthen its health infrastructure?

The lending will be divided into two complementary loans of $500 million each:

The first $500-million Public Health Systems for Pandemic Preparedness Program (PHSPP) will support the government’s efforts to prepare India’s surveillance system to detect and report epidemics of potential international concern.

Another $500 million Enhanced Health Service Delivery Program(EHSDP) will support the government’s efforts to strengthen service delivery through a redesigned primary healthcare model, which includes: 1) Improved household access to primary healthcare facilities, 2) Stronger links between each household and its primary care facility through regular household visits, and 3) Risk assessment of non-communicable diseases.

Both the PHSPP and the EHSDP utilize the Program-for-Results financing instrument that focuses on the achievement of results rather than inputs.

Duration of loan: The loans will have a final maturity of 18.5 years including a grace period of five years.

Which programmes will be supported through this lending?

The lending will support India’s flagship Pradhan Mantri-Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission(PM­ABHIM), launched in October 2021, to improve the public healthcare infrastructure across the country. In addition to this, loans will also prioritize health service delivery in seven States.

Sisupalgarh: Land mafias damage rampart of ancient fortified city of Sisupalgarh

Source: The post is based on the article “Land mafias damage rampart of ancient fortified city of Sisupalgarh ” published in The Hindu on 2nd March 2023.

What is the News?

Land mafias have damaged a portion of the wall of the fortified ancient city of Sisupalgarh.

What is Sisupalgarh?

Sisupalgarh, believed to have been built around the 7th to 6th century BCE, served as the capital of the Kalinga kingdom(present day Odisha). It was an important centre of trade and commerce during ancient times.

Located near: the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha.

Significance: It is considered one of the largest and best-preserved ancient fortifications in India. The fortifications are over 2,000 years old and date back to the 3rd or 4th century BC.

It was declared a Centrally Protected Monument under the provisions of the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904.

What are the unique features of Sisupalgarh?

Design and Construction: In the shape of a complete square that was surrounded by defensive walls.

Dimensions: Each side of the Sisupalgarh spreads over half a mile, and the interior is full of stone ruins and sculptures. The walls of the fortification are a little over nine meters (30 feet) tall.

Note: The fortification was carried out in the 4th to 3rd century BCE, when King Kharavela took up the repair of the city 2,100 years ago.

Gateways: There were eight gateways into the city, two in each of the four sides of the wall. The gateways were connected by streets in a grid-like arrangement with the palace in the center.

The gates were elaborate structures made of brick and stone.

Town planning: There is evidence of stone-lined reservoirs that were likely used for harvesting rainwater.

Intelligent traffic management, pedestrian-friendly pathways, grand gateways with guard houses, wide roads, and a vast open space were some of the key features of this ancient city.

Capacity: The city is believed to have a population of around 20,000 to 25,000.

13th-century temple discovered at Pushpagiri Kshetram in Kadapa district

Source: The post is based on the article “13th-century temple discovered at Pushpagiri Kshetram in Kadapa district” published in The Hindu on 2nd March 2023.

What is the News?

13^th-century Hindu temple ruins have been recently unearthed in a hillock in the Pushpagiri Kshetram in Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh. The architectural features of the ruins reveal a style that is contemporary to a temple at Vallur, built by the Kayastha rulers.

About Kayastha rulers

The Kayasthas (1239 AD – 1297 AD) were subordinates to the rulers of the Kakatiya dynasty. In the history of the Kakatiyas, the Kayastha played a prominent role both as loyal subordinates and traitors.

They ruled the region with Vallur as the capital. Some rulers of this community were – Ganagaya Sahini (1239 – 1258 AD), Jannigadeva (1258 – 1268 AD), and Ambadeva II (1272 – 1294 AD).

The last ruler was Trupurari II (1294 – 1297 AD).

About Pushpagiri Kshetram

Pushpagiri is referred to as Hari-Hara Kshetra, as there are a number of temples dedicated to both Shiva and Vishnu. It is located on the banks of the Pennar river.

The hillock, also known as Pushpachala, is famous for the chain of temples dedicated to the pantheon of Hindu gods such as Chennakesava, Umamaheswara, Rudrapada, Vishnupada, Trikooteswara, Vaidyanatha, Subrahmanya, Vighneswara and Durga Devi.

Pushpagiri is also called the second Hampi due to its beautiful architecture.