Day 8 Prelims 20+: Static Mapping (India & World)

In today’s Prelims 20+, we focus on Static Mapping — a crucial tool to understand the geographical and cultural contours of India and the world. Mastery of these locations helps decode physical geography, historical events, and geopolitical relations. For example, knowing the positions of the Himalayas, the Ganges, the Thar Desert, or global features like the Sahara, the Andes, and the Panama Canal is essential for answering questions on environment, history, and international affairs.

World 

Continent wise

Africa

Major Mountain Ranges & Peaks

• Atlas Mountains – Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia → Mount Toubkal (4,167 m)
• Drakensberg Mountains – South Africa → Thabana Ntlenyana (3,482 m)
• Ethiopian Highlands – Ethiopia → Mount Abuna Yosef (4,550 m)
• Mount Kilimanjaro – Tanzania (Highest in Africa, 5,895 m)
• Mount Kenya – Kenya (5,199 m)

Major Rivers

• Nile River – 6,853 km, world’s longest, flows north into the Mediterranean; tributaries: White Nile, Blue Nile, Atbarah
• Congo River – 4,700 km, deepest river; flows through central Africa
• Niger River – 4,200 km, originates in Guinea Highlands, drains into Gulf of Guinea
• Zambezi River – Longest east-flowing river, passes through Victoria Falls
• Orange River – Longest in South Africa; rises in Drakensberg, borders Namibia

Major Lakes

• Lake Victoria – Largest by area; source of White Nile; shared by Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania
• Lake Tanganyika – Longest and 2nd deepest freshwater lake; shared by DRC, Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia
• Lake Malawi (Nyasa) – Southernmost Great Lake; 2nd deepest in Africa
• Lake Chad – Endorheic, shrinking, in Chad-Niger-Nigeria-Cameroon
• Lake Turkana – Largest desert lake, endorheic, Kenya

Major Deserts

• Sahara Desert – Largest hot desert; includes Ahaggar & Tibesti Mountains
• Sahel Region – Semi-arid transition zone south of Sahara
• Kalahari Desert – Southern Africa; contains Okavango Delta
• Namib Desert – Coastal desert in Namibia, Angola
• Tafilalt – One of world’s largest oases, in Moroccan Sahara

Great Rift Valley System

• Runs from Syria to Mozambique (~6,400 km)
• Eastern Rift (Gregory Rift) – Ethiopian & Kenyan Rift Valleys
• Western Rift (Albertine Rift) – Includes lakes Tanganyika, Albert, Kivu, Edward
• Volcanic Peaks: Kilimanjaro, Kenya
• African Plate splitting into Somali Plate & Nubian Plate

Other Key Features

• Victoria Falls – On Zambezi River, Zambia–Zimbabwe border, UNESCO site
• Okavango Delta – Inland delta in Botswana; rich in wildlife
• Afar Triangle – Ethiopia–Eritrea; tectonic triple junction
• Suez Canal – Connects Mediterranean to Red Sea; separates Sinai Peninsula
• Sinai Peninsula – In Egypt, arid land between Red Sea and Mediterranean

Asia

Major Mountain Ranges & Peaks

• Himalayas: Home to Mount Everest (8,848 m), Kangchenjunga (8,586 m)
• Karakoram: Includes K2 (8,611 m) in PoK
• Altai, Tien Shan, Zagros, Caucasus, Hindu Kush (significant ranges)
• Western & Eastern Ghats: India
• Arakan Yoma: Myanmar

Major Rivers

• Yangtze (6,300 km) and Yellow River (5,464 km) – China
• Mekong (4,909 km) – Southeast Asia
• Lena (4,294 km) – Russia
• Brahmaputra, Indus, Ganga, Tigris & Euphrates – South and West Asia

Major Lakes

• Caspian Sea – Largest enclosed inland body (technically a lake)
• Lake Baikal – Deepest freshwater lake (Russia)
• Lake Balkhash – Kazakhstan
• Kajin Sara (Nepal) – Possibly highest lake (5,200 m, yet unverified)

Deserts

• Gobi Desert (Mongolia-China) – Cold desert
• Thar Desert (India-Pakistan)
• Karakum, Kyzylkum (Central Asia)
• Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut (Iran)
• Rub’ al Khali (Arabian Peninsula) – Largest sand desert

Islands & Archipelagos

• Greater Sunda Islands (Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi)
• Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali, Lombok, Timor)
• Maluku Islands (Indonesia)
• Philippines: Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao
• Japan: Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, Shikoku
• Taiwan, Kuril Islands, Ryukyu Islands, Sakhalin, Cyprus
• Disputed Islands: Paracel, Spratly, Senkaku/Diaoyu

Volcanic Highlights

• Taal Volcano (Philippines) – active, near populated areas
• Anak Krakatoa (Indonesia) – active volcanic island
• Located in Pacific’s Ring of Fire

Strategic & Geopolitical Features

• Kra Canal (Thailand) – Proposed China-backed shipping route
• Taiwan Strait – Flashpoint in China-US relations
• South China Sea – Major maritime dispute over islands & EEZs
• Chabahar Port (Iran) – India’s gateway to Central Asia
• Ream Naval Base (Cambodia) – Chinese military access
• Djibouti – China’s first overseas naval base
• Natuna Islands (Indonesia) – Territorial disputes with China
• Golden Crescent & Golden Triangle – Asia’s major illicit opium zones
• Coral Triangle – Highest coral biodiversity globally

Australia and Oceania

Australia (Country)

• Area: 7.68 million km² (6th largest country globally)
• Longitudinal extent: 113°E to 153°E (~4,000 km)
• Latitudinal extent: 10°S to 43°S (~3,860 km)
• Coastline: 59,681 km
• Neighbouring countries: Indonesia, East Timor, Papua New Guinea (north); Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia (east); New Zealand (southeast)

States of Australia

• New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia

Major Cities

• By population: Sydney (largest), Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Canberra, Hobart, Darwin
• North to south: Darwin, Brisbane, Perth, Sydney, Adelaide, Canberra, Hobart
• East to west: Brisbane, Sydney, Canberra, Hobart, Adelaide, Darwin, Perth

Major Islands

• Tasmania (“Apple Isle”) – important horticultural region

Major Physical Features

• Largest Lake: Lake Eyre (9,500 km²), lowest point (-15 m)
• Highest Mountains:
  • Mawson Peak (2,745 m) – Heard Island (territory near Antarctica)
  • Mount Kosciuszko (2,228 m) – mainland Australia
• Longest River: Murray River (~2,500 km)
• Vegetation: Tropical rainforests (NE), temperate forests (east), snow-capped Australian Alps and Tasmania, interior deserts
• Notable Fauna:
  • Egg-laying mammals: Platypus, Echidna
  • Marsupials: Kangaroo (national animal), Tasmanian devil

Key Geographic Features

• Great Barrier Reef: World’s largest coral reef system (348,000 km²), UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Great Dividing Range: Mountains/highlands from northern Queensland to Victoria; includes Australian Alps and Mt. Kosciuszko
• Major Deserts: Great Victoria Desert (largest)
• Uluru (Ayers Rock): Iconic sandstone monolith, central Australia

Mineral Regions

• Pilbara Region: Rich in iron ore deposits
• Kimberley Plateau: Site of Argyle Diamond Mine

Oceania Regions

1. Australasia: Australia and New Zealand
2. Melanesia: Includes Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia (French)
3. Micronesia: Caroline Islands, Gilbert Islands, Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands, Nauru
4. Polynesia: Samoa, American Samoa, Cook Islands, Easter Island, French Polynesia, Hawaii, Tonga, Tuvalu, New Zealand

New Zealand (Country)

• Two main islands: North and South Islands
• Population: 4.9 million (3/4 live in North Island)
• Economy: Forestry (west South Island), agriculture, sheep rearing, dairy farming (Canterbury Plains)
• Major mountain range: Southern Alps (900–3,000 m)
• Capital: Wellington; Largest city: Auckland (both North Island)

Europe

Major Mountain Ranges:

• Ural Mountains (2,500 km): Conventional boundary between Europe and Asia.
• Scandinavian Mountains (1,762 km): Run through Scandinavian Peninsula; fjords on Norway’s west coast.
• Carpathian Mountains (1,500 km): Span Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia; include Tatra Mountains.
• Alps (1,200 km): Highest mountain range entirely in Europe; stretch across France, Switzerland, Monaco, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, Slovenia.
• Caucasus Mountains (1,100 km): Greater Caucasus forms natural Europe-Asia divide; Mount Elbrus (5,642 m) is Europe’s highest peak.

Notable Winds:

• Foehn: Warm, dry leeward wind in the Alps aiding snow melt and agriculture.
• Mistral: Cold, dry wind from Alps over France to Mediterranean, causes blizzards.

Major Rivers & Waterways:

• Volga (3,690 km): Originates Valdai Hills, drains into Caspian Sea; Europe’s most economically important river.
• Danube (2,860 km): Originates Black Forest, flows to Black Sea through 10 countries.
• Ural (2,428 km): Flows from Ural Mountains to Caspian Sea (Russia, Kazakhstan).
• Dnieper (2,290 km): Originates Valdai Hills, flows to Black Sea through Belarus & Ukraine.
• Don (1,950 km): Western Russia, drains into Sea of Azov.
• Rhine (1,236 km): From Lake Toma to North Sea; vital industrial waterway.
• Other notable rivers: Vistula, Loire, Oder, Rhone, Seine, Elbe.

Key Canals & Waterways:

• Volga–Baltic Waterway: Connects Volga River to Baltic Sea.
• Volga–Don Shipping Canal: Links Caspian Sea to oceans via Sea of Azov & Black Sea.
• White Sea–Baltic Canal: Connects White Sea to Lake Onega & Volga-Baltic.
• Main-Danube Canal: Connects North Sea to Black Sea via Rhine & Danube.
• Rhone–Rhine Canal & Amsterdam-Rhine Canal facilitate trade between seas and rivers.

Political & Economic Groups:

• European Union (EU): 27 members, 4.2 million km², ~447 million population; single market with free movement; established 1993 (Maastricht Treaty); roots in ECSC (1951), EEC (1957).
• Schengen Area: Passport-free travel zone; includes 22 EU states + Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland. Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Romania & Ireland excluded but mostly obliged to join.
• Eurozone: 19 EU countries use the Euro currency.
• European Free Trade Association (EFTA): Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland; parallel to EU, all in Schengen.

Regional Groupings:

• Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; NATO, EU, Eurozone members.
• Nordic Countries: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden + Faroe Islands, Greenland.
• Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark (sometimes synonymous with Nordic countries).
• Former USSR European States: Baltic States + Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, Russia.
• Balkans: Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, parts of Turkey & Greece.
• Former Yugoslavia: Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia; Kosovo declared independence in 2008 (not recognized by Serbia, India).

Other Important Geographic Features:

• Turkish Straits: Dardanelles and Bosporus connect Mediterranean/Aegean Seas to Black Sea.
• Great European Plain: Largest mountain-free landform; stretches west-east from Pyrenees & Bay of Biscay to Ural Mountains.
• Pannonian Basin: Enclosed by Carpathians and Transylvanian Alps; contains Great Hungarian Plain; divided by Danube River.
• Iberian Peninsula: Spain, Portugal, small part of France, Andorra, Gibraltar (6.7 km²; British territory disputed by Spain).
  

North America

Major Physical Features

• Highest Peak: Mount Denali (Mount McKinley), 6,190 m
  
• Longest Rivers:
  • Missouri (4,087 km) – longest in N. America, source: Rocky Mountains
  • Mississippi (3,765 km) – source: Lake Itasca, Minnesota
  • Yukon (3,186 km) – longest in Alaska
  • Rio Grande (3,051 km) – longest in Mexico
• Great Lakes: Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario
  • Largest freshwater lake by surface: Lake Superior
  • Largest lake entirely within one country: Lake Michigan
  • Great Lakes hold 21% of world’s surface fresh water
  • Connected to Atlantic Ocean via Saint Lawrence Seaway
• Niagara Falls:
  • Three waterfalls on US-Canada border
  • Largest: Horseshoe Falls (Canadian side)
  • Located on Niagara River (Lake Erie → Lake Ontario)
• Other Major Lakes:
  • Great Salt Lake (endorheic, Utah; high salinity similar to Dead Sea)
  • Great Bear Lake (largest entirely in Canada)
  • Great Slave Lake (deepest in N. America)

Deserts:

• Great Basin Desert: Between Sierra Nevada & Rocky Mountains; temperate desert; Great Salt Lake located here
• Chihuahuan Desert: Largest desert; spans northern Mexico & southwestern US
• Mojave Desert: Southeastern California & southern Nevada; includes Death Valley (lowest, hottest place in N. America)
• Sonoran Desert: Southwestern US (Arizona, California) & NW Mexico

Islands and Island Groups:

• Greenland: Largest island in the world; autonomous Danish territory; covered mostly by ice sheet; capital Nuuk; indigenous Inuit population
• Canadian Arctic Archipelago: Includes Baffin Island (5th largest globally), Victoria, Ellesmere Islands
• Newfoundland: Separated by Strait of Belle Isle and Cabot Strait
• Grand Banks: Rich fishing grounds SE of Newfoundland
• Antilles (Caribbean Islands):
  • Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola (Haiti, Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico
  • Lesser Antilles: Mostly volcanic or coral islands
• Lucayan Archipelago: Bahamas, Turks and Caicos (not part of Greater Antilles)
• West Indies: All Antilles + Lucayan Archipelago; sometimes synonymous with Caribbean

Volcanic Islands:

• Hawaiian Islands: 8 major islands; volcanic hotspot chain; Mauna Loa (largest shield volcano), Mauna Kea (tallest mountain from base, best astronomical site), Kīlauea (most active volcano)
• Aleutian Islands: Volcanic island chain in Alaska; part of Pacific Ring of Fire; some islands belong to Russia

Important Waterways:

• Saint Lawrence Seaway: Connects Great Lakes to Atlantic Ocean
• Grand Canyon: Carved by Colorado River; over 400 km long and 1 mile deep in places

Political and Regional Notes:

• Central America: 7 countries (El Salvador, Costa Rica, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama)
• Part of Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot
• Seismically active volcanic arc zone
• Dependent Territories:
  • UK: Bermuda, Cayman Islands, British Virgin Islands, Anguilla, Turks & Caicos, Montserrat
  • France: Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon
  • Netherlands: Caribbean Netherlands, Sint Maarten
  • US: Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands
  • Denmark: Greenland

South America

Major Physical Features

Mountains & Highlands

• Andes Mountains run along western edge.
• Highest mountain: Mount Aconcagua (6960 m) in Argentina – highest in Americas and outside Asia.
• Mount Ojos del Salado (6893 m): highest active volcano in the world, Argentina-Chile border.
• Brazilian Highlands: large eroded plateau in central-southeast Brazil, major mineral wealth, coffee, sugarcane production.
• Guiana Highlands: north of Amazon, south of Orinoco, spans Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia.

Rivers & Lakes

• Amazon River: 6575 km, largest discharge volume globally, source Mantaro River (Andes), flows into Atlantic.
• Orinoco River: 2250 km, shared by Venezuela & Colombia, flows through Los Llanos.
• Paraná River: 4880 km, through Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina; 2nd longest river.
• Lake Titicaca: highest navigable lake (3812 m), largest freshwater lake by volume and area in South America (border Bolivia-Peru).
• Lake Maracaibo: brackish tidal bay in Venezuela, larger surface area than Titicaca but tidal bay.

Forests & Ecosystems

• Amazon Basin: 7 million km² drainage area; 5.5 million km² covered by Amazon Rainforest.
• Amazon rainforest spread across Brazil (60%), Peru (13%), Colombia (10%), and others.
• More than 50% of dust fertilizing Amazon comes from Sahara Desert’s Northern Chad depression.

Islands and Archipelagos

• Galápagos Islands (Ecuador): volcanic hotspot islands straddling equator.
• Tierra del Fuego: archipelago at South America’s southern tip, divided between Chile and Argentina.
• Falkland Islands & South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands (UK): British Overseas Territories, disputed by Argentina.

Agricultural & Ecological Regions

• Los Llanos: vast tropical grassland in Colombia and Venezuela, drained by Orinoco River.
• Pampas: fertile temperate lowlands of Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil, major agriculture zone.
• Gran Chaco: semi-arid plain in Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, last agricultural frontier, heavy deforestation.
• Patagonia: southern Argentina & Chile, grasslands, deserts, fjords, glaciers; sheep farming dominant.

Deserts

• Atacama Desert: driest place on Earth, located in Chile. Dryness due to rain shadow of Andes, cold Humboldt Current, offshore trade winds, and Walker circulation.
• Patagonian Desert: largest desert in Argentina, bounded by Andes and Atlantic Ocean.

Other Notable Features

• Angel Falls, Venezuela: highest uninterrupted waterfall (979 m height, 807 m plunge).
• Machu Picchu, Peru: 15th-century Inca citadel in Andes, UNESCO World Heritage Site & New Seven Wonders of the World.
• La Paz, Bolivia: highest capital city (3500 m above sea level).
  

Antarctica

Seas of Antarctica (West to East)

These seas lie within the Southern Ocean, which surrounds the Antarctic continent.

1. Ross Sea
   • Between Marie Byrd Land and Victoria Land (South of New Zealand).
   • Adjacent to the Pacific Ocean.
   • Known for rich biodiversity and scientific research stations.
2. Amundsen Sea
   • Between Ross Sea and Bellingshausen Sea.
   • Borders Marie Byrd Land.
   • Important for ice sheet dynamics.
3. Bellingshausen Sea
   • East of Amundsen Sea.
   • Along the west coast of Antarctic Peninsula.
   • Named after Russian explorer Fabian von Bellingshausen.
4. Weddell Sea
   • East of Antarctic Peninsula, south of the Atlantic Ocean.
   • Noted for thick sea ice and marine biodiversity.
5. Davis Sea
   • Along East Antarctica, south of the Indian Ocean.
   • Near Indian stations: Maitri and Dakshin Gangotri.

Major Antarctic Ice Shelves (Clockwise from West Antarctica)

1. Ross Ice Shelf
   • Largest ice shelf (~500,000 km²).
   • South of Ross Sea.
2. Getz Ice Shelf
   • West Antarctica, along Marie Byrd Land.
3. Abbot Ice Shelf
   • Located in the Amundsen Sea sector.
4. Larsen Ice Shelf
   • East of the Antarctic Peninsula.
   • Known for disintegration events (Larsen A, B, and C).
5. Ronne-Filchner Ice Shelf
   • Along Weddell Sea.
   • Ronne (west) and Filchner (east) sections.
   • Among the largest ice shelves globally.
6. Amery Ice Shelf
   • In East Antarctica, near Davis Sea.
   • Major site for Indian Antarctic research.

Important Straits – Location & Connection

• Strait of Gibraltar: Between southern Spain and northern Morocco; connects Mediterranean Sea ↔ Atlantic Ocean.
• Strait of Dover: Between England and France; connects English Channel ↔ North Sea.
• Dardanelles Strait: In Turkey; connects Aegean Sea ↔ Sea of Marmara.
• Bosphorus Strait: In Turkey; connects Sea of Marmara ↔ Black Sea.
• Bab el-Mandeb Strait: Between Yemen and Djibouti/Eritrea; connects Red Sea ↔ Gulf of Aden (Indian Ocean).
• Strait of Tiran: Between Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula and Saudi Arabia; connects Gulf of Aqaba ↔ Red Sea.
• Strait of Hormuz: Between Iran and Arabian Peninsula; connects Persian Gulf ↔ Gulf of Oman (Arabian Sea).
• Sunda Strait: Between Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra; connects Java Sea ↔ Indian Ocean.
• Strait of Malacca: Between Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; connects Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) ↔ South China Sea (Pacific Ocean).
• Strait of Johor: Between Malaysia and Singapore; connects Johor Strait ↔ Singapore Strait.
• Makassar Strait: Between Indonesian islands of Borneo and Sulawesi; connects Celebes Sea ↔ Java Sea.
• Karimata Strait: Between Indonesian islands of Belitung and Borneo; connects South China Sea ↔ Java Sea.
• Bering Strait: Between Russia and Alaska (USA); connects Arctic Ocean ↔ Bering Sea.
• Tsushima Strait: Between Japan’s Tsushima Island and South Korea; connects Sea of Japan ↔ Korea Strait.
• Strait of Magellan: Between mainland South America and Tierra del Fuego; connects Atlantic Ocean ↔ Pacific Ocean.
• Strait of Messina: Between Sicily and mainland Italy; connects Tyrrhenian Sea ↔ Ionian Sea.
• Bass Strait: Between mainland Australia and Tasmania; connects Tasman Sea ↔ Southern Ocean.
• Cook Strait: Between New Zealand’s North and South Islands; connects Tasman Sea ↔ South Pacific Ocean.

List of countries surrounding various seas

• Aral Sea:– Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan (mnemonics– U-K Aral)
• Caspian Sea: Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Russia, Iran, Kazakhstan (TRAIK)
• Black Sea: Turkey, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Romania (Bulgaria’s GREAT Ruins)
• Red Sea: Djibouti, Eritrea, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Yemen (DESSYE)
• Gulf of Aqaba: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia (EJIS)
• Mediterranean Sea:
  • Africa: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt (MALTE)
  • Asia: Israel, Lebanon, Cyprus, Syria 
  • Europe: Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey
• Adriatic Sea: Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro
• North Sea: UK, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Norway
• Baltic Sea: Russia, Germany, Poland, Finland, Denmark, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
  • Minor: Gulf of Bothnia – Sweden and Finland
• Aegean Sea: Turkey, Greece
• Ionian Sea: Greece, Italy
• Dead Sea: Israel, Jordan

INDIAN GEOGRAPHY: STATIC MAPPINGS

Passes in India

J&K and Ladakh 

• Banihal Pass – and Now Jawahar Tunnel – From Jammu to Srinagar – Pir Panjal Range
• Zoji La Pass – Great Himalayas – Srinagar to Kargil -Zojila Tunnel  
• Burzil Pass – great Himalayas – Srinagar to Gilgit 
• Khardung La Pass – Ladakh Range – towards Leh – Gateway to Shyok and Nubra valleys  
• Chang La – Ladakh Range – Leh to Shyok valley 
• Photu La – Zaskar Range – Srinagar Leh Highway 
• Umling La – Zaskar Range – highest motorable road in the world  
• Lanak La – Aksai Chin Side – Route from Ladakh to Lhasa 
• Pir Panjal Pass – lies in POK – would’ve been shortest route between Jammu and Srinagar Himachal Pradesh  
• Bara Lacha La – NH4 – Spiti Valley – towards Leh 
• Debsa Pass – Link between Kullu and Spiti 
• Rohtang Pass – Link between Kulllu and Spiti valley – Ravi river passes 
• Shipki La – Himachal Pradesh to Tibet – Satluj River Passes 

Uttarakhand 

• Mana Pass – Uttarakhand to Tibet – earlier world’s highest motorable road 
• Niti pass – Uttarakhand to Tibet 
• Mangscha Dhura  
• Lipulekh pass – Route to mansarovar – Tri Junction – Border dispute with Nepal  Sikkim 
• Nathu La – Sikkim to Tibet – Also an alternate route for Mansarovar 
• Jalep La – Tri Junction – India Bhutan China 

Arunachal Pradesh 

• Bum La and Bomdi La – close to each other near Bhutan border 
• Dihang Pass – Gorge by Brahmaputra  
• Sela Pass – Connects East Kameng and Tawang Districts 
• Diphu Pass – Close to India Myanmar China trijunction 
• Tulung La Pass – Close to Bhutan Border – towards Tibet 
• Yongyap pass – Towards Tibet  
• Tsang Kang Pass  

Other Passes 

• Haldighati Pass -Rajasthan – in the Aravali Hills 
• Thal Ghat and Bhor Ghat – Western Ghats – Maharashtra – Mumbai Nashik and Mumbai Pune  roads respectively  
• Pal Ghat and Shencottah Gap – Kerala – Connects Tamil Nadu with Kochi and Kollam  Respectively 

Glaciers in India

Important Glaciers of the Himalayan Mountains

• The Karakoram Range

Name of the Glacier & Location

1. Siachen- Nubra Valley
2. Fedchenko South-Western Pamir
3. Hispar –Tributary of Hunza River
4. Biafo –  Brabloh Valley
5. Batura –Hunza
6. Baltoro-  Braldoh Valley
7. Chogo Lungma-  Rakaposhi Range
8. Khurdopla  –Shingshal Valley
9. Lolofond-  West of Siachen
10. Yarkand Rimo-  Shyok Valley
11. Mohil Yaz –Shingshal Valley
12. Yazhit –Shingshal Valley
13. Godwin Austen –K2
14. Pasu –  Hunza
15. Kunyang –  Muztagh, Karakoram
16. Chong Kumdon –Shyok
17. Gasherbrum-  Gasherbrum

The Pir Panjal Range

• Sonapani –  Chandra Valley of Labul and Spiti
• Bara Shigri –Chandra Valley
• Rakhiot –Nanga Parbat
• Gangri-  Nun Kun Massif
• Chungphar-  Nanga Parbat

The Kumaon-Garhwal Region

1. Gangotri –Source of the Ganga
2. Milam –Gori Ganga 
3. Bhagirath Kharak-  Near Badrinath
4. Mana Mana Valley -north of the Gangotri
5. Satopanch-  Near Badrinath

The Central Nepal Region

1. Yepokangara-  Gosainthan
2. Lidanda –Manaslu
3. Chhuling-  Manaslu
4. Mayondi –Dhaulagiri Himal

The Kanchenjunga-Everest Region

• Rongbuk  – Northern (Tibetan) side of the Mount Everest
• Zemu –  Zemu Valley (Forms headwaters of the Tista River)
• Kanchanjunga –North of Kanchanjunga, occupies head of Kangchen river.
• Khumbu –South of Mt. Everest
• Kangshung-  East of Mt. Everest
• Tolam Nau –  South-west of Mt. Everest
• Barun –North-east of Barunste peak
• Rambang – Kanchanjunga

THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS

Geographically, the entire Himalayan region can be divided into:

• The Himalayan Ranges

• The Trans-Himalayas

• The Eastern Hills

Note: The individual ranges have very steep gradients towards the South but they present a much gentler slope towards the North.

I. The Himalayan Ranges can be divided into three parallel ranges, which are:

The Great or Inner Himalayas or Himadri: 

• • Presence of tallest peaks of the world: Example – Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Dhaulagiri etc. are all > 8000 mts. Peaks.
  • High Mountain passes also exist in this range, namely, Bara Lacha-La, Shipki-La, Nathu-La, Zoji-La, Bomidi-La etc.
  • The Ganga and Yamuna rivers originate from the Himalayas.

2. Himachal or Lesser Himalayas: 

• • The Prominent ranges in this are Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar, Nag Tibba, Mussorrie Ranges and Mahabharata ranges.
  • This range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh.

3. Shiwalik Range:

• CHOS: The southern slopes of Shiwalik range in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are almost devoid of forest cover. 
• Duns: The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Examples –Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun 

II. The Trans-Himalayas

• The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan range are known as the Trans – Himalayas. Also known as the Tibetan Himalayas.
• Main ranges: The Zanskar, the Ladakh, the the Kailash and the Karakoram 

III. Eastern Hills/Poorvanchal Hills

Patkai Bum: 

• Forms the international boundary between Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar.
• Made up of sandstones
• Range of elevation: From 2000 m to 3000 m
• Merges with Naga hills in the south

Naga Hills: 

• Highest peak: Saramati (3826 m)
• Naga hills along with PatkaiBumform the watershed between India and Myanmar.

Kohima Hills: 

• The Kohima hills stands west of the Naga hills
• Made up of sandstone and slate and have a very rough topography

Manipur Hills: 

• Runs south of the Naga hills
• Less than 2500 metres in elevation 
• Forms boundary between Manipur and Myanmar

Barail Range:  

• Barail range separates Naga hills from Manipur hills
• They swing to the south-west in the southern part and to the west to join Garo, Khasi and Jaintiya hills which are eastward continuation of the Indian peninsular block.

Mizo Hills: 

• South of Manipur hills
• Also known as Lushai hills
• Average elevation: Less than 1500 metres
• Highest point: Blue Mountain (2157 metres)

MAJOR HILLS OF PENINSULAR INDIA

The Aravali Range:

• The range is running in a north-east to south-west direction for 800 km between Delhi and Palanpur (near Ahmedabad) in Gujarat.
• Here, Mt. Abu (1158 metres), a small hilly block, is separated from the main range by the valley of the Banas.
• The Guru Sikhar (1722 metres), the highest peak, is situated in Mt. Abu.
• Important Passes: Barr, Pipli Ghat, Dewair and Desuri passes allow movement by roads and railways.

The Vindhyan Range

• It runs parallel to the Narmada Valley in an east-west direction from Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar for a distance of over 1200 km.
• The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as the Bharner and the Kaimur hills.
• Rivers like Chambal, Betwa and Ken rise within 30 km of the Narmada.

The Satpura Range

• Runs in east-west direction south of the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada and the Tapi, roughly parallel to these rivers.
• Expanse: It commences from the Rajpipla Hills in the west, through the Mahadev Hills to the Maikala Range
• Dhupgarh (1350 metres) near Panchmari on Mahadev Hills is the highest peak. 
• The other peaks are the AstambaDongar (1325 metres) and Amarkantak (1127 metres).

THE WESTERN GHATS OR SAHAYADRIS

• They run in a north-south direction, parallel and close to the Arabian Sea coast, from the Tapi valley (21 degree N) to a little north of Kanyakumari (11 degree N latitude) for a distance of 1600 km.
• These Ghats traverse the States of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat.

THE NORTHERN SECTION

• Spread: From 21 degree N to 16 degree N from Tapi valley to a little north of Goa.
• Peaks: Kalasubai (1646 metres) near Igatpuri, Salher (1567 metres) about 90 km north of Nashik.
• Important passes: 
  • Thalghat: It connects Nashik with Mumbai
  • Bhorghat:  It connects Mumbai with Pune

THE MIDDLE SAHAYADRI

• • Spread: They run from 16 degree N latitude upto Nilgiri Hills.
  • Important peaks: Vavul Mala (2339 metres), Kudremukh (1892 metre) and Pashpagiri (1714 metres)
    • Doda Betta (2637 metres) and Makurti (2554 metres)

THE SOUTHERN SAHAYADRI

• This part is separated from the main Sahayadris by a pass known as the Palghat Gap (with elevation of 75-300 metres).
• Highest peak – Anai Mudi (2695 metres) 
• Ranges: Anaimalai (1800-2000 metres) to the north, the Palani (900-1200 metres) to the north-east and the Cardamom Hills or the Ealaimalai to the south.

THE EASTERN GHATS

• It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from the Mahanadi in Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu.
• It comprises the Maliya and the Madugula Konda ranges.
  • The Maliya Range: The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range have a general elevation of 900-1200 metres and the Mahendra Giri (1501 metres) is the tallest peak here. 
  • The Madugula Konda Range: It has the higher elevations ranging from 1100 metres and 1400 metres with several peaks exceeding 1600 metres. Example – Arma Konda (1680 metres), Gali Konda (1643 metres) and Sinkram Gutta (1620 metres)
• The southern part of this range is called the Palkonda Range.
• Very low elevation plateaus and hills lie in further south, except for the Javadi Hills and Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills (both > 1000 metres).
• Biligiri Rangan Hills in Coimbatore district attained 1279 metres.

Major River Systems of India

1. Indus River System

• Origin: Lake Mansarovar, Tibet
• Length: 3,180 km (approx. 1,114 km in India)
• Tributaries: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej
• States/UTs: Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab
• Drainage: Arabian Sea

2. Ganga River System

• Origin: Gangotri Glacier (Bhagirathi) and Alaknanda; confluence at Devprayag
• Length: 2,525 km
• Tributaries: Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son
• States: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal
• Drainage: Bay of Bengal

3. Brahmaputra River System

• Origin: Angsi Glacier, Tibet (as Yarlung Tsangpo)
• Length: 2,880 km
• Tributaries: Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, Teesta
• States: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
• Drainage: Bay of Bengal (via Bangladesh)

4. Godavari River System

• Origin: Trimbak Plateau, Maharashtra
• Length: 1,465 km
• Tributaries: Manjira, Indravati, Sabari
• States: Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh
• Drainage: Bay of Bengal

5. Krishna River System

• Origin: Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra
• Length: 1,400 km
• Tributaries: Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha
• States: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh
• Drainage: Bay of Bengal

6. Narmada River

• Origin: Amarkantak Plateau, Madhya Pradesh
• Length: 1,312 km
• States: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat
• Drainage: Arabian Sea

7. Tapi (Tapti) River

• Origin: Satpura Range, Madhya Pradesh
• Length: 724 km
• States: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat
• Drainage: Arabian Sea

8. Mahanadi River

• Origin: Sihawa Hills, Chhattisgarh
• Length: 900 km
• Tributaries: Seonath, Hasdeo, Jonk, Mand
• States: Chhattisgarh, Odisha
• Drainage: Bay of Bengal

9. Kaveri (Cauvery) River

• Origin: Talakaveri, Brahmagiri Hills, Karnataka
• Length: 800 km
• Tributaries: Hemavati, Kabini, Bhavani, Amaravati
• States: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
• Drainage: Bay of Bengal

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